INTRODUCTION 


CRITICISM  AND  INTERPRETATION 

OF 

THE  BIBLE, 

DESIGNED    FOR    THE    USE 


THEOLOGICAL  STUDENTS,  BIBLE  CLASSES,  AND  HIGH 
SCHOOLS. 


BY    0.   E.   STOWE, 

PROFESSOR  OF  BIBLICAL  LITERATURE,  LANE  SEMINARY,   CINCINNATI, 


IN   TWO   VOLUMES. 

VOL.  I. 


CINCINNATI: 

COREY,  FAIRBANK  &  WEBSTER. 

1835, 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1835, 

BY  COREY,  FAIRBANK  &  WEBSTER, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Ohio. 


CINCINNATI  : 

PRINTED    BY    F.    S.    BENTON, 

S.  E.  corner  Main  and  Fifth  streets. 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE. 
CHAPTER  FIRST. 

OF     REVELATION     AND     THE     LANGUAGE     IN     WHICH     IT     IS 
GIVEN. 

Revelation  and  inspiration — Perfectness  of  revela- 
tion— Language  of  revelation — Perverse  interpreta- 
tion— Revelation  to  be  interpreted  by  the  common 
laws  of  language — Revelation  designed  to  exercise 
the  moral  and  intellectual  powers,  p.  13-25. 

CHAPTER    SECOND. 

PECULIARITIES     OF    THE     BIBLE    IN    RESPECT    TO    INTERPRE- 
TATION. 

Results  from  the  preceding  chapter — Peculiarities 
of  the  bible — Relative  perfection  of  the  bible — Pecu- 
liarities of  prophecy — Typical  representation,  26-35. 

CHAPTER    THIRD. 

PROOF   THAT  MOSES  WAS    THE  WRITER    OF  THE    FIVE  BOOKS 
USUALLY    ASCRIBED    TO    HIM. 

Name  of  these  books — Authenticity  of  these  books 
—Circumstantial  evidence  of  the  authorship  of  Mo- 


JV  CONTENTS. 

ses — Direcl  testimony  that  these  books  were  written 
by  Moses — Recapitulation  of  the  argument,    36-50. 

CHAPTER    FOURTH. 

HYPOTHESES    OF   THOSE  WHO    REJECT    THE  AUTHORSHIP  OF 
MOSES.        THEHt    OBJECTIONS    STATED    AND.  ANSWERED. 

Various  hypotheses — Hypothesis  of  Hobbes — 
Peyrere — Spinoza — Simon — LeClerc — Hasse — Ful- 
da— Nachtigall— Vater — Bertholdt— de  Wette— Vol- 
ney — Objections  to  the  authorship  of  Moses — Sum- 
mary view  of  the  argument — Conclusion,        37-71. 

CHAPTER    FIFTH. 

ORIGIN    OF    ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

Progress  of  the  ancients  in  the  arts  and  sciences — 
Most  ancient  materials  of  writing— Importance  of 
alphabetic  writing — All  alphabets  from  one  source — 
Alphabetic  WTiting  of  Shemitish  origin — Process  of 
forming  the  original  alphabet — Historical  testimony 
— Alphabetic  writing  not  of  Phenician  origin — Al- 
phabetic writing  not  of  Egyptian  origin — Hiero- 
glyphic writing — Summary  of  results — Concluding 
remarks — Note,  72-98* 

CHAPTER    SIXTH. 

■'■  AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

Origin  of  the  gospels — Original  mode  of  publica- 
tion— Canonical  authority — Credibility  of  the  gos- 
pels, es-'iH. 


CONTENTS.  V 

CHAPTER    SEVENTH. 

CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS. 

General  remarks — Gospel  of  Matthew — Mark — 
Luke — John — Relation  of  the  gospels  to  each  other, 

115-136. 

CHAPTER    EIGHTH. 

GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE. 

Introductory  remarks — The  millennial  controversy 
— The  Apocalypse  then  first  questioned — Testimony 
in  favor  of  the  book — Objections  to  the  Apocalypse, 

137-151. 

CHAPTER  NINTH. 

INTERPRETATION    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE. 

General  design  of  the  book — Plan  and  contents  of 
the  book — Prophetic  application  of  the  book — Gen- 
eral remarks  on  prophecy,  152-167. 

CHAPTER   TENTH. 

HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS  CONTRASTED. 

Introductory  remarks — Hebrev^  and  pagan  reli- 
gions— Prophets  of  ancient  Greece — Greek  oracles — 
Oracles  of  Apollo  and  Trophonius — Character  of  the 
oracular  responses — Manners  and  character  of  the 
Hebrew^  prophets — Subjects  and  character  of  their 
prophecies — Illustrations  from  the  Old  Testament 
— The  contrast — Fulfilment  of  prophecy — Predic- 
tions respectings  Cyrus — Babylon — Other  prophe- 
cies, 168-200. 
1* 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    ELEVENTH. 

*  DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION. 

Ideas  of  divine  influence  in  the  earliest  ages — 
Ideas  of  inspiration  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans — 
Ideas  of  the  ancient  Hebrews — Ideas  of  the  primitive 
christians — Ideas  of  the  reformers  and  their  succes- 
sors— Concluding  remarks,  201-217. 

CHAPTER    TWELFTH. 

SCRIPTURAL    IDEA    AND    PROOF    OF    INSPIRATION. 

Scriptural  idea  of  inspiration — Scriptural  proof  of 
inspiration — Divine  authority  of  Christ — Of  the  apos- 
tles—Of Mark  and  Luke — Of  Paul— Objections- 
Divine  authority  of  the  Old  Testament — Influence  of 
the  bible,  218-253. 

CHAPTER    THIRTEENTH. 

MIRACLES. 

Scriptural  names  of  miracles — Idea  of  a  miracle — 
Miracles  in  unenlightened  periods — Miracles  not 
contrary  to  nature — Miracles  not  contrary  to  expe- 
rience— Use  of  miracles  in  a  system  of  religion — True 
miracles  can  be  distinguished  from  false,       254-276. 


PREFACE, 


During  the  last  winter,  I  was  invited  by  Dr. 
Beecher  to  deliver  a  course  of  sabbath  evening  lec- 
tures in  the  Second  Presbyterian  church  in  Cincin- 
nati, on  topics  pertaining  to  the  criticism  and  inter- 
pretation of  the  bible.  The  lectures  were  accord- 
ingly delivered;  and  they  were  listened  to  with  a 
degree  of  interest  and  approbation,  which  was  to 
me  entirely  unexpected  and  highly  gratifying.  It 
was  repeatedly  suggested  to  me,  that  a  publication 
of  the  lectures  would  be  of  real  service  to  the  cause 
of  Christianity,  particularly  in  the  West.  After  much 
deliberation,  I  concluded,  instead  of  publishing  the 
lectures  as  they  were  delivered,  to  prepare  from 
them  a  work  in  a  different  form  on  the  same  topics. 

It  is  my  object  in  this  work  to  give  a  brief  and 
clear  statement  of  the  principles  and  facts  most 
necessary  to  be  known,  preparatory  to  the  critical 
study  of  the  scriptures.  By  endeavoring  to  combine 
thoroughness  of  investigation  with  simplicity  in  the 
mode  of  exhibition,  I  have  hoped  that  the  book  may 
meet  the  wants  of  the  theolomcal  student  and  the 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

critical  scholar,  and  at  the  same  time  be  easily  acces- 
sible to  both  teacher  and  pupil  in  the  bible  class, 
the  sabbath  school,  and  the  family.  The  first  vol- 
ume is  now  before  the  public,  and  they  are  to  judge 
of  its  fitness  to  accomplish  the  object  proposed. 
The  second  will  be  ready  for  the  press  during  the 
coming  winter,  and  will  contain  a  history  of  the 
text  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  a  brief  ac- 
count of  the  principal  manuscripts  and  critical  edi- 
tions, and  a  particular  introduction  to  each  of  the 
remaining  books  of  the  bible,  similar  to  those  here 
given  to  the  Pentateuch,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Apo- 
calypse. 

In  the  arrangement  of  topics,  I  have  endeavored 
to  adopt  that  method,  by  which  the  discussion  of 
each  preceding  subject  will  throw  most  light  on  the 
succeeding,  and  the  greatest  clearness  be  secured 
with  least  of  repetition.  A  careful  attention  to  the 
order  of  the  topics  will  satisfy  the  intelligent  reader 
that  this  has  been  the  object,  and  I  hope  it  has  been 
to  some  extent  attained. 

I  know  of  no  work  in  the  English  language,  which 
professes  to  occupy  the  ground  that  I  have  endeav- 
ored to  cover  in  the  following  pages.  The  works 
which  I  have  seen  on  the  same  subjects  are  either 
too  voluminous  and  expensive  for  common  use,  or 
too  brief  and  meagre  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the 
present  stage  of  biblical  inquiry.    Many  distinguished 


PREFACE.  IX 

teachers,  who  have  wished  to  introduce  the  study  of 
the  bible  into  their  academies  and  high-schools,  have 
expressed  an  earnest  wish  to  obtain  some  compre- 
hensive work,  which  should  give  a  satisfactory  dis- 
cussion of  the  topics  prerequisite  to  the  intelligent 
study  of  the  scriptures.  It  was  with  the  hope  of 
promoting  the  introduction  of  this  all-important 
study  into  our  schools  and  literary  institutions,  and 
on  a  suggestion  to  that  effect  from  one  of  our  most 
able  and  experienced  teachers,  that  the  following 
publication  w^as  undertaken. 

In  regard  to  the  historical  evidences  for  the  truth 
of  Christianity,  I  refer  continually  to  Dr.  Paley,  whose 
masterly  treatise  on  that  subject  I  hope  will  be  con- 
tinued as  a  text-book  in  every  institution  of  learn- 
ing, where  the  English  language"  is  spoken.  As  a 
clear  and  unanswerable  exhibition  of  historical  testi- 
mony, it  has  never  been  excelled;  though,  like  most 
English  writers  on  the  subject,  the  author  seems  too 
little  familiar  with  the  soul  and  life-giving  power  of 
the  religion  of  Christ,  and  rests  its  authority  too 
exclusively  on  miracles  and  external  evidence.  As 
it  is,  however,  the  professed  object  of  Paley's  work 
to  give  the  external  evidence,  the  deficiency  can  be 
supplied  by  other  treatises,  such  as  those  of  Erskine 
and  Dr.  Chalmers,  particularly  his  astronomical  dis- 
courses. 


X  I*REFACE.  J 

Too  many  of  the  English  writers,  probably  through 
the  influence  of  the  ridicule  which  followed  the  fanat- 
icism of  the  seventeenth  century,  have  defended 
Christianity  by  sacrificing  all  that  is  valuable  in  it  to 
appease  its  enemies,  and  bringing  it  down  to  the  stan- 
dard of  a  rational  deism.  They  show  great  regard 
for  the  christian  religion,  but  appear  quite  ashamed 
of  all  its  peculiar  doctrines.  Even  the  noble  work 
of  bishop  Butler,  though  vastly  superior  to  most  of 
its  cotemporaries  in  christian  feeling  and  courage,  is 
scarcely  free  from  objection  in  this  respect.  Such 
defences  ruin  the  cause  they  profess  to  sustain ;  and 
the  Word  of  God  stands  in  no  need  of  defence  by 
concessions  and  apologies.  Professor  Tholuck  has 
well  remarked,  that  'most  of  the  English  apologists 
are  like  the  stupid  householder,  who  cries  ^re  and 
murder  when  the  thief  comes,  and  at  the  same  time 
throws  his  most  valuable  household  stuff  out  of  the 
window.  To  save  the  shell,  they  give  up  the  kernel.' 
(Litterarischer  Anzeiger,  Jahrg.  1831.  col.  549). 

It  is  hoped  that  a  different  spirit  has  been  awak- 
ened, and  that  the  peculiarities  of  the  religion  of 
Christ  will  be  always  insisted  upon,  in  every  attempt 
to  vindicate  it  against  the  assaults  of  unbelievers. 

C.  E.  S, 
Walnut  Hills,  July  31st,  1835^ 


Eruata. 
Page  103,  bottom  line,  for  1  read  13. 
Page  120, 2d  line  from  bottom,  for  9  read  3. 


INTRODUCTION 

TO    THE 

CRITICISM  AND  INTERPRETATION 

OP 

THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTER    FIRST. 


OF    REVELATION    AND    THE    LANGUAGE    IN    WHICH     IT    IS 
GIVEN. 


I.     REVELATION  AND  INSPIRATION. 

To  reveal  is  to  make  knov^n  something  which  was 
before  unknown;  and  divine  revelation  is  the  direct 
communication  of  truth,  before  unknown,  from  God 
to  men.  Difficulty  has  frequently  arisen  on  this  sub- 
ject from  confounding  revelation  with  inspiration* 
As  J.  D.  Michaelis  remarks  (Compend.  Theol.  p.  29), 
'the  words  inspiration  and  revelation  are  to  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other;  for  the  former  (inspiration) 
has  a  more  general  meaning,  while  the  latter  (revela- 
tion) refers  to  those  things  only  of  which  the  sacred 
writers  were  ignorant  before  they  were  divinely 
taught.  They  who  confound  these  words,  are  ac- 
customed to  invent  empty  objections;  as  how  it  were 
possible,  that  things  very  well  known  to  the  sacred 
2 


14         REVELATION  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE. 

historians  by  ordinary  means,  should  be  revealed  to 
them,  which  they  pronounce  to  be  absurd,  as  it  really 
is;  but  yet  the  writers  of  the  bible  might  be  moved 
by  divine  impulse  to  commit  to  writing  matters 
with  which  they  were  before  well  acquainted,  and 
these  things  might  be  so  brought  to  their  minds  by 
the  Holy  Spirit,  that  there  would  be  no  danger  of 
erring.' 

This  distinction  is  in  exact  accordance  with  the 
declaration  of  our  Saviour  to  his  disciples  (John  xiv. 
26;  xvi.  12,  13);  where  the  twofold  office  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  of  bringing  to  remembrance  things  be- 
fore known  by  other  means,  and  of  revealing  new 
truths,  is  clearly  recognized.  The  word  inspiration^ 
by  the  custom  of  speech,  includes  both  these  opera- 
tions of  the  Spirit;  the  word  revelation  only  the  lat- 
ter. Accordingly,  revelation  may  be  defined  as  that 
act  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by  w^hich  truths  before  un- 
known are  communicated  to  men;  and  inspiration^ 
the  act  of  the  Spirit  by  which  (not  only  unknown 
truths  are  communicated,  but  by  which  also)  men  are 
excited  to  publish  truths  for  the  instruction  of  others, 
and  are  guarded  from  all  error  in  doing  it.  Thus  it 
was  revealed  to  the  ancient  prophets  that  the  Messiah 
should  appear,  and  they  were  inspired  to  publish  this 
fact  for  the  benefit  of  others.  The  affecting  scenes 
at  the  cross  of  Christ  were  not  revealed  to  the  apostle 
John,  for  he  saw  them  with  his  own  eyes  (John  xix. 
35);  but  he  was  inspired  to  write  a  history  of  this 
.event,  and  by  supernatural  guidance  was  kept  from 
all  error  in  his  record.  It  is,  therefore,  true,  as  the 
apostle  Paul  affirms  (2  Tim.  iii.  16)  that  all  scripture 


REVELATION    AND    ITS    LANGUAGE.  15 

is  given  by  inspiration  of  God;  though  every  part  of 
the  bible  is  not  the  result  of  immediate  revelation. 
Let  this  distinction  be  carefully  kept  in  view,  and 
many  objections  which  are  often  urged  with  great 
confidence  against  the  inspiration  of  certain  parts  of 
the  bible,  and  many  difficulties  which  honest  minds 
sometimes  feel,  vanish  at  once. 

For  convenience  sake  we  call  the  whole  bible  a 
REVELATION,  bccause  most  of  the  truths  which  it  con- 
tains, were  made  known  by  direct  communication 
from  God,  and  could  have  been  discovered  in  no  other 
way ;  and  generally  it  is  only  the  incidental  circum- 
stances attending  the  communication  of  these  truths, 
that  could  be  ascertained  by  the  writers  in  the  ordi- 
nary modes  of  obtaining  information. 

Inspiration,  therefore,  does  not  exclude  diligent 
and  faithful  research  on  the  part  of  the  sacred  writers 
(Luke  i-  1-4);  nor  onf  §aerod  writer  quoting  from 
another  (as  Micah  iv.  from  Isaiah  ii);  nor  a  sacred 
writer  making  use  of  documents  furnished  by  unin- 
spired men,  for  the  ascertaining  of  facts,  (as  the  Book 
of  Jasher,  and  the  Book  of  Jehovah's  Wars,  Josh.  x. 
13;  Num.  xxi.  14);  nor  the  characteristic  peculiarities 
of  style  and  manner,  resulting  from  diversity  of  intel- 
lectual structure,  education,  and  other  circumstances, 
such  as  we  observe  when  we  compare  Isaiah  with. 
Ezekiel,  or  John  with  Paul. 

II.  PEKFECTNESS  OF  REVELATION. 

Having  thus  settled  the  notion  of  revelation,  we 
next  inquire,  what  is  essential  to  the  perfectness  of  a 
revelation?    On  this  point  difficulties  often  arise  from 


16         REVELATION  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE, 

the  merely  accidental  association  of  ideas;  many 
seeming  to  imagine,  that  because  the  revelation  itself 
is  alleged  to  be  perfect,  therefore,  there  should  be  no 
incidental  circumstances  of  imperfection  attending 
its  publication  among  men.  But  let  us  learn  to  dis- 
tinguish the  things  that  differ.  What  is  a  perfect 
revelation  but  perfect  truth  clearly  communicated? 
In  oral  revelation,  the  person  chosen  as  the  organ  of 
communication  may  be  young  or  old,  elegant  or  rus- 
tic, his  features  may  be  beautiful  or  plain,  his  voice 
melodious  or  harsh,  his  manner  easy  or  awkward,  his 
language  ornamented  or  simple,  and  the  perfectness 
of  the  revelation  not  be  in  the  least  affected  by  any 
of  these  circumstances.  In  written  revelation,  then, 
is  the  form  of  the  book  at  all  essential  to  the  perfect- 
ness of  the  revelation?  or  the  binding?  or  the  mate- 
rials of  which  the  book  is  made?  Must  ink  become 
unfading,  and  paper  impp.rishable,  when  used  for  the 
recording  of  a  revelation,  or  the  revelation  itself  be- 
come imperfect?  Must  writers,  or  copiers,  or  print- 
ers, become  exempt  from  human  frailty,  so  soon  as 
they  are  employed  about  a  book  containing  revela- 
tions ?  Must  the  manner  and  style  of  revelation  be 
adapted  to  any  particular  set  of  circumstances,  or 
conformed  to  any  one  standard  of  taste?  In  a  book 
designed  for  universal  use  this  would  obviously  be 
improper  and  absurd.  The  Chinese,  the  Esquimaux, 
the  South-sea  Islanders,  have  as  much  right  to  claim 
that  the  bible  should  be  throughout  conformed  to 
their  peculiar  circumstances  and  tastes,  as  the  Ger- 
mans, the  French,  or  the  English.  Revelation  must 
bear  the  prevailing  impress  of  the  circumstances  and 


REVELATION    AND    ITS    LANGUAGE.  17 

tastes  of  the  times  and  nations,  in  which  it  was  ori- 
ginally given.  The  bible,  however,  though  it  bears 
the  distinct  impress  of  Asiatic  manners,  as  it  should 
do,  being  originally  an  Asiatic  book,  is  most  remarka- 
ble for  rising  above  local  and  temporary  peculiari- 
ties, and  seizing  on  the  great  principles  common  to 
human  nature  under  all  circumstances. 

In  order  to  make  a  revelation  perfect,  must  its  lan- 
guage be  any  other  than  human  language  ?  And,  if 
human  language,  is  it  not  necessarily,  in  itself,  imper- 
fect language? 

The  only  question  of  any  importance  on  this  point 
is,  can  the  meaning  of  revelation  be  accurately  ascer- 
tained? We  answer,  that  the  meaning  of  the  bible, 
by  the  use  of  appropriate  means,  can  be  ascertained 
with  unfailing  accuracy  for  all  practical  purposes; 
and  these  are  the  only  purposes  for  which  the  bible 
was  given. 

III.     LANGUAGE  OF  REVELATION. 

The  language  of  the  bible  is  the  language  of  men, 
(otherwise  it  would  be  of  no  use  to  men);  and  it  is  to 
be  understood  just  as  all  other  human  language  is 
understood.  It  is  addressed  to  the  common  sense  of 
men,  and  common  sense  is  to  be  consulted  in  its 
interpretation. 

This  is  necessary,  because 

1.  No  human  language  has  a  distinct  sound  for 
every  distinct  idea;  and  the  same  word  must  have 
several  meanings.  In  English,  for  example,  the  word 
letter  has  several  different  meanings;  and  which  one 
is  intended  is  always  made  plain  to  common  sense  by 
2* 


18         REVELATION  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE. 

the  connection  in  which  it  stands,  and  the  nature  of 
the  subject  to  which  it  is  applied. 

'  The  child  is  learning  its  lettersJ* 
'The  merchant  is  writing  his  letters,^ 
'  Dr.  Johnson  was  a  man  of  letter sJ^ 

Who  that  has  common  sense  ever  thinks  of  con- 
founding the  different  meanings  of  the  word  letters  in 
the  three  sentences  above  quoted?  The  same  use  of 
words  occurs  in  the  bible,  and  the  meaning  is  to  be 
ascertained  in  the  same  way. 

Again,  common  sense  is  to  be  consulted  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  bible,  because 

2.  Language  is  sometimes  literal  and  sometimes 
figurative;  and  the  connection  and  the  nature  of  the 
subject  must  always  determine  which  sense,  the  lite- 
ral or  the  figurative,  is  intended. 

'The  bird^ze^  into  its  nest.' 
'The  mViXi  flies  into  a  passion.' 

is  there  any  difficulty  in  determining  which  sense 
of  the  word  flies  is  intended  in  each  of  the  above  sen- 
tences? vSo  when  we  say  of  a  mass  of  lead,  that  it 
has  great  weight,  the  nature  of  the  subject  shows  that 
we  use  the  phrase  literally,  and  mean  that  the  mass  is 
very  heavy;  but  when  we  say  of  the  opinion  of  a 
judge,  that  it  had  great  weight  in  deciding  a  legal 
question,  the  nature  of  the  subject  shows  that  we 
use  the  phrase  figuratively,  and  mean  that  his  opinion 
had  great  influence. 

There  is  just  the  same  sort  of  figurative  language 
m  the  bible,  and  it  is  to  be  understood  by  just  the 
same  means. 


'  REVELATrON    AND    ITS    LANGUAGE.  19 

In  further  illustration  of  this  point,  examine  the 
first  stanza  of  Gray's  Ode  on  Spring. 

*  Lo !  where  the  rosy-bosomed  hours, 

Fair  Venus'  train  appear, 
Disclose  the  long- expecting  flowers. 

And  wake  the  purple  year! 
The  Attic  warbler  pours  her  throat j 
Responsive  to  the  cuckoo's  note, 

The  untaught  harmony  of  spring  ; 
While,  whispering  pleasure  as  they  fly, 
Cool  zephyrs  through  the  clear  blue  sky 

Their  gathered  fragrance  fling.'' 

Here  are  as  many  figures  as  there  are  lines,  and 
many  of  them  as  bold  as  any  we  find  in  the  bible; 
and  yet  how  could  the  same  ideas,  in  any  other  way, 
be  expressed  with  so  much  clearness,  vivacity,  and 
beauty  ? 

Figurative  language  is  always,  not  only  more  vivid 
and  beautiful,  but  plainer  and  more  permanent  than 
literal;  for  the  objects  of  nature,  from  which  fig- 
ures are  drawn,  remain  always  the  same,  while 
the  meaning  of  words  is  perpetually  changing. 
When  the  patriarch  Jacob  called  his  son  Judah  a 
lioTi's  whelp  (Gen.  xlix.  9),  he  expressed  a  distinctive 
feature  of  his  character  in  terms  which  could  not 
then  be  mistaken,  and  whose  meaning  no  subsequent 
changes  of  language  could  ever  obscure.  Ideas,  par- 
ticularly, pertaining  to  intellectual  and  moral  sub- 
jects, can  seldom  be  expressed  literally,  so  as  to  be 
understood  by  the  mass  of  mankind.  The  language 
of  common  life  abounds  with  figures;  and  the  more 
illiterate  and  simple  men  are,  the  more  frequent  and 
free  is  their  use  of  figurative  language.     This  has 


20  REVELATION  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE.  • 

always  been  remarked  in  respect  to  savage  nations, 
and  it  is  equally  true  of  the  illiterate  classes  among 
civilized  people.  Go  among  the  laborers  and  seamen 
of  the  Atlantic  states,  or  the  backwoodsmen  and 
boatmen  of  the  West,  and  you  will  scarcely  hear  a 
literal  expression;  almost  every  idea  is  expressed  in 
the  boldest  figures.  Hear  an  Ohio  boatman  bantering 
with  his  fellow,  and  if  he  threatens  to  put  him  into 
the  river  unless  he  is  quiet,  it  is  in  language  like  this: 
'If  you  don't  mind,  sir,  I'll  spill  you  into  the  drink.' 

Several  causes  combine  to  make  the  bible  particu- 
larly rich  in  figurative  language.  It  is  designed  for 
common  use,  and  treats  principally  of  moral  and  re- 
ligious subjects,  which  can  be  made  plain  to  the  com- 
mon understanding  only  by  figurative  expressions; 
it  was  written  in  the  primitive  ages  and  among  a  sim- 
ple people;  and  it  is  the  product  of  Asiatic  mind: 
and  by  reason  of  its  highly  figurative  style,  which  is 
sometimes  urged  against  it  as  a  defect,  it  commends 
itself  the  more  readily  to  the  common  sense  of  men, 
and  is  the  less  affected  by  the  changes  which  take 
place  in  manners  and  language. 

IV.     PERVERSE    INTERPRETATION. 

But  though  figurative  language  is  easily  under- 
stood, it  is  also  easily  perverted;  and  most  of  the  per- 
verse interpretations  of  the  bible  arise  from  the  abuse 
of  its  figurative  language,  or  of  its  terms  whose 
meaning  is  ambiguous,  till  determined  by  the  con- 
nection in  which  they  stand.  The  difficulties  of  in- 
terpreting the  bible  and  the  differences  of  opinion  in 
regard  to  its  meaning,  do  not  owe  their  origin  to  any 


REVELATION    AND    ITS    LANGUAGE.  21 

intrinsic  obscurity,  but  to  habits  of  perverse  inter- 
pretation, which  unhappily  have  so  long  prevailed. 
The  bible  is  treated  sometimes  as  if  fancy  and  not 
reason  were  the  proper  organ  to  elicit  its  meaning; 
and  at  other  times,  because  it  is  appealed  to  as  au- 
thority, and  the  interpreter  is  not  willing  to  yield  a 
favorite  opinion  of  his  own,  he  adopts  wrong  princi- 
ples of  interpretation,  and  talks  about  allegory,  or 
the  analogy  of  faith,  in  order  to  force  the  sentiments 
of  the  bible  to  a  conformity  with  his  own  opinions. 
Every  book,  interpreted  in  this  manner,  must  give 
rise  to  various  and  contradictory  opinions.  While 
the  Greeks  interpreted  Homer  allegorically,  there 
was  as  much  controversy  about  his  meaning  as  there 
is  now  about  the  meaning  of  the  bible;  but  so  soon 
as  men  became  willing  to  let  Homer  speak  for  him- 
self and  to  take  him  as  h'e  meant,  controversy  ceased. 
So  soon  as  mcii  adopt  ihc  same  course  in  regard  to 
the  bible,  the  same  result  will  follow,  and  not  before. 
I  will  endeavor  to  illustrate  my  meaning  by  a  few 
examples.  Our  Saviour  says,  /  am  the  true  vine. 
Who  ever  thinks  of  understanding  this  literally?  He 
also  says,  /  am  the  door.  Who  ever  thinks  of  under- 
standing this  literally?  And  why  are  not  these  ex- 
pressions to  be  literally  understood?  Because  com- 
mon sense  teaches  us  that,  literally  taken,  they  are 
utterly  unintelligible;  but  figuratively  understood, 
they  give  just  the  meaning  appropriate  to  the  speak- 
er's purpose.  And  does  not  common  sense  teach  the 
same  thing  in  regard  to  another  declaration  of  the 
same  speaker,  respecting  the  sacramental  bread, 
namely,  This  is  my  body?    How  can  this  be  literally 


22         REVELATION  AND  ITS  LANGUAGE. 

understood  without  contradicting  the  evidence  of  all 
the  senses?  Might  not  the  Western  Indian,  who 
worships  a  high  rock,  with  equal  propriety  quote  in 
defence  of  his  idolatrous  practice,  such  passages  as 
these?  Ascribe  ye  greatness  unto  our  God.  He  is  the 
Rock.  (Deut.  xxxii.  3,  4.)  Of  the  Rock  that  begat  thee, 
thou  art  unmindful,  (v.  18.)  Unto  thee  will  I  cry,  O 
Jehovah,  my  Rock.  (Ps.  xxviii.  1.)  Christ  says, 
Knock,  and  it  shall  be  opened.  On  such  principles  of 
interpretation,  we  might  assert  that  the  salvation  of 
men  depended  on  their  going  about  and  knocking, 
no  matter  how  or  what,  provided  they  knocked  some- 
thing that  could  be  opened. 

What  absurdities  would  follow,  if  men  were  to  in- 
terpret the  language  of  common  life  as  they  some- 
times insist  upon  interpreting  the  bible!  A  man 
once  found  a  friend  with  a  bottle  of  wine  before  him, 

and  making  a  hideous   nuiao.      'What,'    said  h©^   'my 

dear  sir,  are  you  insane  ?'  '  No,'  replied  the  friend, 
'but  my  physician  tells  me  I  must  take  wine  and 
BARK.'  Was  the  physician  to  be  blamed  for  the  use 
of  an  ambiguous  word,  or  the  patient  for  not 
applying  common  sense  to  the  interpretation  of  the 
prescription? 

V.  REVELATION  TO  BE  INTERPRETED  BY  THE  COMMON  LAWS 
OF  LANGUAGE. 

By  interpreting  the  bible  on  the  same  principles  by 
which  we  instinctively  interpret  the  language  of  com- 
mon life,  its  true  meaning  may  be  easily  ascertained, 
and  contrarieties  of  exposition  avoided. 

If  the  bible  is  not  to  be  interpreted  by  the  common 
laws  of  language,  then  specific  rules  must  be  given 


REVELATION    AND    ITS    LANGUAGE.  23 

for  its  interpretation,  either  by  the  bible  itself,  or  by 
some  other  divine  authority.  But  these  rules,  if  un- 
derstood at  all,  must  be  understood  by  the  common 
laws  of  language;  and  how  can  it  be  any  more  diffi- 
cult to  understand  revelation  itself  by  the  common 
laws  of  language,  than  it  is  to  understand  by  this 
means  the  rules  by  which  revelation  is  to  be  inter- 
preted? Everywhere  in  the  works  of  nature,  we 
see  the  greatest  results  accomplished  by  the  fewest 
possible  instrumentalities;  and  in  a  revelation  from 
the  God  of  nature  w^e  are  not  prepared  to  expect  a 
needless  complexity  of  means.  The  bible  gives  no 
such  specific,  peculiar  rules  for  its  own  interpretation, 
and  all  analogy  is  against  the  supposition  of  any  such 
thing. 

Again,  if  there  be  an  authorized  interpreter  of  the 
bible,  his  interpretations  must  be  understood  by  the 
common  laws  of  language ;  and  why  can  we  not  un- 
derstand revelation  itself  by  the  common  laws  of 
language,  as  well  as  the  interpretation  of  a  revela- 
tion?. What  is  the  use  of  a  revelation  that  cannot 
be  understood  without  an  authorized  interpreter? 
And  w^hat  is  the  use  of  an  authorized  interpreter  to 
a  revelation  that  can  be  understood  without  one  ? 
One  or  the  other  is  certainly  needless;  and  so  need- 
less an  expenditure  of  means  does  not  resemble  the 
simplicity  of  the  divine  economy  in  other  things. 
The  bible  gives  no  hint  of  any  such  power  of  author- 
itative interpretation;  and  reason  rejects  the  whole 
theory  as  entirely  groundless. 


24  REVELATION    AND    ITS    LANGUAGE. 

VI.      REVELATION    DESIGNED    TO    EXERCISE    THE    MORAL     AND 
INTELLECTUAL    POWERS. 

All  theories  of  allegorical  and  infallible  interpreta- 
tion are,  for  the  most  part,  either  the  mere  sport  of 
fancy,  or  an  expedient  for  the  getting  rid  of  the  plain 
meaning  of  scripture,  and  the  responsibilities  which 
belong  to  men  as  free,  intelligent  agents.  The  bible 
was  never  intended  to  relieve  men  from  the  respon- 
sibilities of  thinking,  searching,  and  judging — the 
labor  of  intellectual  and  moral  action;  but  on  the 
contrary,  to  increase  these  responsibilities  and  call 
forth  this  action.  It  was  never  designed  to  pamper 
the  soul  in  idleness,  and  raise  it  to  heaven  as  lifeless 
matter  is  raised  by  a  cord;  but  it  was  intended  to 
rouse  up  all  the  energies  of  the  soul,  to  promote  its 
most  healthful  growth,  and  cause  it  to  rise  towards 
heaven  spontaneously,  as  the  bird  rises  on  her  own 
buoyant  wing.  Accordingly,  wherever  the  bible  is 
the  people's  book,  there  is  found  an  inquisitive,  ac- 
tive, enterprising,  and  intelligent  population;  and 
wherever  the  bible  is  withheld  from  the  people,  there 
is  a  corrupting  mass  of  sluggish  mind,  ready  to  be 
trampled  upon  by  the  foot  of  every  tyrant. 

God  did  not  lay  out  the  physical  world  with  rail- 
roads and  canals  in  all  convenient  directions,  and 
cause  habitations  ready  furnished  to  spring  out  from 
the  ground  like  the  trees  of  the  forest,  and  to  every 
habitation  provide  a  garden  well  supplied  with  all 
that  might  be  necessary  for  the  sustenance  of  a  fam- 
ily. Without  a  necessity  for  the  labors  of  agricul- 
ture, architecture,  and  the  arts  of  life,  the  powers  of 
man  would  never  be  developed.     Why  is  not  man  as 


REVELATION    AND    ITS    LANGUAGE.  25 

well  provided  for  in  infancy  as  the  brutes?  In  those 
fruitful  climes  where  there  is  any  approach  to  this  con- 
dition, man,  for  want  of  exercise  and  effort,  becomes 
almost  a  brute.  The  physical  world  is  so  arranged 
as  to  give  the  highest  and  most  vigorous  exercise  to 
the  intellectual  and  physical  energies  of  man;  and 
every  part  of  this  exercise  is  essential  to  his  intellect- 
ual and  physical  development. 

So  the  bible  is  adapted  to  give  the  highest  exercise 
to  the  intellectual  and  moral  powers  of  man,  and 
were  this  exercise  to  be  superseded,  his  intellectual 
and  moral  powers  would  never  be  developed,  the 
bible  would  cease  to  be  a  blessing,  and  man  would 
sink  to  the  brute.  There  is  no  good  to  be  obtained 
by  man  without  labor;  and  least  of  all  is  spiritual 
good  to  Be  indolently  obtained. 


CHAPTER    SECOND. 

PECULIARITIES    OF    THE    BIBLE    IN    RESPECT    TO    INTERPRE- 
TATION. 


I.      RESULTS    FROM    THE    PRECEDING    CHAPTER. 

The  preceding  remarks  are  intended  to  establish 
the  two  following  principles,  namely: 

1.  The  language  of  the  bible  is  human  language, 
and  is  to  be  understood  by  the  same  means  and  ac- 
cording to  the  same  laws,  by  which  all  other  human 
language  is  understood.     And, 

2.  The  bible  has  no  need  of  a  succession  of  author- 
ized interpreters,  and  admits  of  no  such  thing;  but 
addresses  itself  directly  to  the  practical  reason  and 
common  sense  of  all  mankind. 

II.     PECULIARITIES    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

In  establishing  these  principles,  however,  we  must 
not  forget  two  others  which  are  equally  important. 
They  are  these: 

1.  The  bible  has  some  peculiarities,  which  belong 
to  no  other  book,  and  so  far  as  these  peculiarities 
are  concerned,  it  has  and  must  have  laws  of  inter- 
pretation in  some  respects  peculiar.     And 

2.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  are  inspir- 
ed and  authorized  interpreters  of  the  Old. 

Still,  the  common  laws  of  language  are  never  vio- 
lated, nor  even  encroached  upon,  by  these  peculiar- 


PECULIARITIES    OF    REVELATION.  ^27 

ities;  but  words  and  phrases  are  always  used,  which 
are  appropriate  to  express  the  ideas  intended. 

The  three  following  are  the  principal  peculiarities 
of  scripture,  to  which  I  allude: 

1.  Relative  perfection.  2.  Prophecy.  3,  Typical 
representation. 

in.     RELATIVE  PERFECTION  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

By  this  I  mean  a  perfection  which  is  not  absolute, 
as  God  is  said  to  be  an  absolutely  perfect  being;  but 
a  perfection  which  has  reference  to  some  particular 
end  to  be  secured.  As  the  language  of  the  bible  is 
human  language,  it  cannot  be  absolutely  perfect,  it  is 
in  itself  altogether  imperfect;  but  yet  the  language  of 
the  bible  is  perfect  as  respects  its  adaptation  to  the 
end  to  be  secured  by  it,  namely,  the  religious  educa- 
tion of  man  as  a  free,  intelligent,  accountable  being. 

So  the  Mosaic  institutions  were  not  in  themselves 
the  best  possible,  for  Christianity  is  certainly  better; 
but  they  were  the  best  possible  for  the  times  and  the 
circumstances  to  which  they  were  adapted.  They 
were  not  absolutely  perfect;  but  perfect  relatively 
to  the  end  to  be  accomplished  by  them,  namely,  the 
preparation  of  the  world  for  the  gospel  dispensation. 
The  apostle  declares,  that  the  laio  made  nothing  per- 
fect^ but  the  hringing  in  of  a  better  hope  did  (Heb.  vii. 
19);  and,  that  the  law  was  our  schooolmaster  to  bring 
us  to  Christ  (Gal.  iii.  24);  and,  that  before  faith  came 
we  were  kept  under  the  law,  shut  up  to  the  faith  which 
was  afterwards  to  be  revealed  (v.  23). 

After  we  have  proved  the  bible  to  be  a  perfect 
revelation,  in  the  sense  above  explained,  we  have 


2^ 


PECULIARITIES    OF    REVELATION. 


two  peculiar  laws  of  interpretation,  which  apply  to» 
no  other  books. 

1.  We  are  not  at  hberty  to  censure  the  ends 
which  God  proposes  to  himself  in  the  bible,  nor  the 
means,  by  which  he  accomplishes  them;  but  we  are 
simply  to  ascertain  what  those  ends  and  means  are. 

2.  We  are  not  at  liberty  to  infer  real  contradic- 
tions between  the  different  waiters  of  the  bible;  but 
where  there  is  an  apparent  contradiction,  we  are  to 
suspend  our  judgment,  investigate  anew,  and  seek 
modes  of  conciliation* 

Neither  of  these  rules,  as  is  easily  seen,  affects  the 
laws  of  language;  but  they  merely  regulate  the 
inferences  which  we  derive  from  meanings  ascer- 
tained in  the  usual  mode. 

In  regard  to  the  apparent  discrepancies  and  real 
diversities  between  the  four  evangelists,  Chrysostom 
has  the  following  judicious  remarks:  'This  very 
thing  is  the  greatest  proof  of  truth,  for  had  they 
agreed  with  exactness  in  every  point,  even  to  time, 
and  place,  and  very  words,  no  one  of  their  enemies 
would  have  believed,  that  they  had  not  been  to- 
gether and  written  what  they  wrote  by  some  human 
collusion;  for  so  great  symphony  does  not  belong  to 
simplicity.  But  now  the  seeming  discrepancy  in 
minute  things  clears  them  from  all  suspicion,  and 
strikingly  vindicates  the  character  of  the  writers. — 
We  think  it  meet  that  you  should  narrowly  observe 
this,  that  in  principles,  and  in  things  pertaining  to 
life  and  doctrine,  no  one  can  any  where  find  the  least 
dissonance  among  them.'  (Preface  to  Matthew). 


PECULIARITIES    OF    REYELATION.  29 

IVr     PECULIARITIES-  OF    PROPHECY. 

If  prophecy  were  merely  anticipated  history,  we 
should  need  here  no'  peculiar  laws  of  interpretation; 
but  this  is  not  the  fact. 

The  costume  and  the  symbols  of  prophecy  are 
altogether  peculiar^  and  entirely  different  from  the 
style  and  manner  of  pure  history  (See  Matt.  xxiv. 
29;  Acts  ii.  19,  20). 

Moreover,  the  prophets  generally  saw  the  events, 
which  they  describe,  actually  transpiring  before 
them,  and  were  not  told  of  them  by  narrative.  They 
saw,  in  ecstatic  vision,  near  events  and  remote  in 
juxtaposition,  in  space  and  not  in  time,  with  the  idea 
of  succession  merely  without  exact  chronology;  as 
we  see  the  stars  in  the  firmament,  all  apparently  at 
nearly  equal  distances  from  the  eye;  or  as  the  tow- 
ers of  a  distant  city  seem  to  the  eye  spread  out  on 
the  curve  of  the  horizon,  and  to  rise  from  the  edifices 
between  them  and  the  observer.  Time  is  designated 
in  but  very  few  instances,  and  then  generally  in  a 
very  peculiar  and  enigmatical  manner.  Two  of  the 
most  remarkable  instances  are  the  seventy  years' 
duration  of  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Jer..  xxv.  11, 
12);  and  the  seventy  weeks  that  were  to  precede  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  (Dan.  ix.  24). 

A  careful  observance  of  this  principle  will  greatly 
aid  in  the  right  understanding  of  the  prophets;  and 
will  show  why  they  almost  always  speak  in  the  pre- 
sent tense  rather  than  the  future.  Examine  the  fol- 
lowing passages  as  illustrations:  Nahum  sees  the 
overthrow  of  Nineveh,  and  listens  to  the  tumult  oc-- 
3* 


30  PECULIARITIES    OF    REVELATION* 

casioned  by  it  (Nah.  iii.  1-3).  Isaiah  sees  the  revel- 
ings,  the  surprise,  and  the  sudden  massacre  of  the 
Babylonians  (Isaiah  xxi.  1-9;  see  also  verses  11,  12)^ 
So  he  sees  the  Babylonian  king  fall  and  go  to  Hades 
(Isaiah  xiv.  7-12).  (Compare  also  Hab.  iii.  3-12; 
and  Revr  vi.-xii). 

In  accordance  with  this  mode  of  prophetic  vision, 
remote  events  of  the  same  kind  are  often  intimately 
conjoined,  as  though  they  were  to  occur  in  immedi- 
ate connection;  and  the  prophets  themselves  could 
not  always  ascertain  the  time  that  was  to  intervene 
between  them.  (See  1  Pet.  i.  10-12). 

Thus  Isaiah  connects  the  coming  of  the  Messiah 
and  the  millennium  immediately  with  the  Jewish  de- 
liverance from  Assyrian  oppression  (Isaiah  ix,  x.  xi; 
compare  Matt.  iv.  15,  16);  and  also  the  same  events 
with  the  restoration  from  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Isaiah  xl.  and  the  following).  The  deliverance  from 
Assyria  was  to  take  place,  as  the  prophet  well  knew, 
two  centuries  earlier  than  the  deliverance  from 
Babylonia;  and  he  certainly  knew  that  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah  could  not  immediately  succeed  both 
these  events,  yet  he  has  joined  this  event  to  both  the 
former,  in  accordance  with  the  genius  and  constant 
custom  of  prophecy.  For  other  examples,  com- 
pare Joel  ii.  28  with  Acts  ii.  17;  and  Zech.  ix, 
9,  10  with  Matt.  xxi.  5. 

So  Christ,  according  to  the  universal  rule  of  proph- 
ecy, connects  the  day  of  judgment  immediately  with 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  predicting  the  latter  i» 
Matt.  xxiv.  and  the  former  in  Matt.  xxv.. 


PECULIARITIES    OF    REVELATION.  31 

In  the  prophetic  peculiarities,  also,  it  will  be  per- 
ceived, that  there  is  no  violation  of  the  common  laws 
of  language.  It  is  with  the  thoughts  and  not  with 
the  words^  that  these  peculiarities  are  connected. 

V.      TYPICAL    REPRESENTATION. 

God  proposed  the  whole  plan  of  revelation  to  himself 
from  the  first,  and  seeing  the  end  from  the  beginning, 
made  the  old  dispensation  preparatory  to  the  new 
and  prefigurative  of  it  (Col.  ii.  17). 

This  holds  true  in  reference  to  prophecy.  Some- 
times one  person  or  event  is  taken  as  the  represen- 
tative or  tijpe  of  some  more  remote  and  still  greater 
person  or  event,  and  language  is  used  in  regard  to 
both,  the  whole  of  which  can  be  applied  to  neither 
separately.  Thus  in  2  Sam.  vii.  (compare  Heb.  i.  5) 
Solomon  (the  son  and  successor  of  David)  and  the 
Messiah — the  Hebrew  temple  and  the  Christian 
church — are  blended  together  in  prophetic  vision. 
To  this  peculiarity  of  typical  prophecy  lord  Bacon 
refers,  when  he  speaks  of  a  '  latitude  which  is  agree- 
able and  familiar  unto  divine  prophecies,  being  of  the 
nature  of  their  author,  with  whom  a  thousand  years 
are  but  as  one  day;  therefore  they  are  not  fulfilled 
punctually  at  once,  but  have  springing  and  germinant 
accomplishment  throughout  many  ages,  though  the 
height  or  fulness  of  them  may  refer  to  some  one  age.' 
(Advancement  of  Learning,  B.  ii.)  In  this  way 
many  of  the  Psalms  are  obviously  understood  by  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  as  having  a  twofold 
reference. 


32  PECULIARrTIES    OF    REVELATION. 

Ps.  xvi.  compared  with  Acts  ii.  25-31  and  xiii.  35. 

Ps.  xxii.  compared  with  Matt,  xxvii.  35-50. 

Ps.  viii.  with  Heb.  ii.       Ps.  xlv.  with  Heb*  i..  8. 

This  principle  of  one  person  being  takest  as  the 
representative  or  type  of  another,  is  so  dearly  re- 
cognized in  the  bible,  that  even  the  proper  names  are 
sometimes  interchanged.  Thus  John  Baptist  is  call- 
ed Elijah  (Mai.  iv.  5  compared  with  Matt.  xi.  14); 
and  Christ  is  called  David  (Ezek.  xxxiv.  23,  24). 

Events  as  well  as  persons  may  be  typical,  and 
prophecies  be  uttered  respecting  them  in  the  same 
■way  (Isaiah  vii.  14-17  compared  w^ith  Matt.  i.  22,  23). 

This  twofold  reference  of  prophecy  might  some- 
times be  obscure,  or  even  unknown,  to  the  prophet 
himself  (See  John  xi.  50,  51). 

It  was  a  Jewish  principle,  that  nothing  would  occur 
under  the  new  dispensation,  which  had  not  its  cor- 
responding outline  in  the  old;  and  as  to  the  Hebrew 
priesthood  and  temple,  we  have  the  best  evidence 
for  asserting,  that  they  w^ere  in  all  their  details  prefigu- 
rative  of  the  different  parts  of  the  Christian  system 
(Heb.  ix.  7-20). 

Indeed,  I  do  not  see  how  any  one,  who  admits  that 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  are  inspired  and 
authorized  interpreters  of  the  Old,  can  deny  that 
there  is  frequently  a  twofold  reference  in  the  predic- 
tions of  the  Old  Testament,  and  a  typical  meaning  in 
its  institutions.  The  extravagancies  of  double  sense, 
allegories,  and  types,  surely,  constitute  no  sufficient 
reason  for  the  rejection  or  the  concealment  of  a  plain 
matter  of  fact. 


PECULIARITIES    OF    REVELATION.  33 

The  best  rule,  which  I  have  seen,  for  the  interpre- 
tation of  types,  is  the  following,  selected  from  bishop 
Marsh's  Theological  Lectures  (Part  iii.  p.  1 1 3  &  117). 

'To  constitute  one  thing  the  type  of  another,  as  the 
term  is  generally  understood  in  reference  to  scripture, 
something  more  is  wanted  than  mere  resemblance. 
The  former  must  not  only  resemble  the  latter,  but 
must  have  been  designed  to  resemble  the  latter.  It 
must  have  been  so  designed  in  its  original  institution. 
It  must  have  been  designed  as  something  preparatory 
to  the  latter.  The  type,  as  well  as  the  antitype, 
must  have  been  preordained;  and  they  must  have 
been  preordained  as  constituent  parts  of  the  same 
general  scheme  of  divine  providence.  It  is  this  pre- 
vious design  and  this  preordained  connection,  which 
constitute  the  relation  of  type  and  antitype.  Where 
these  qualities  fail,  where  the  previous  design  and 
preordained  connection  are  wanting,  the  relation  be- 
tween the  two  things,  however  similar  in  themselves, 
is  not  the  relation  of  type  and  antitype.' 

'For  example,  cardinal  Bellarmine  supposes  that 
the  protestant  secession  under  Luther  was  typified 
by  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam; 
while  the  Lutherans  with  equal  reason  retorted,  that 
Jeroboam  was  a  type  of  the  pope,  and  that  the  seces- 
sion of  Israel  from  Judah  typified,  not  the  secession 
of  the  protestants  under  Luther,  but  the  secession  of 
the  church  of  Rome  from  primitive  Christianity. 
But  to  whichever  of  the  two  events  the  secession, 
under  Jeroboam  may  be  supposed  the  most  similar^ 
(if  similarity  exist  there  at  all  beyond  the  mere  act 
of  secession)  we  have  no  authority  for  pronouncing 


34  PECULIARITIES    OF    REVELATION. 

it  a  type  of  either.  We  have  no  proof  of  previous 
design  and  of  preordained  connection  between  the 
subjects  of  comparison;  we  have  no  proof  that  the 
secession  under  Jeroboam  was  designed  to  prefigure 
any  other  secession  whatever.^ 

The  Old  and  New  Testament  both  abound  with 
historical  illustrations,  which  are  often  confounded 
with  typical  representation,  to  the  great  hinderance  of 
a  right  understanding  of  the  bible.  To  give  a  few 
examples. 

1.  Particular  facts  illustrate  general  principles. 
Deut.  XXV.  4  compared  with  1  Cor.  ix.  9,  10. 
Ps.  xcv.  compared  with  Hebrews  iii.  7-19. 

In  this  way  the  whole  Israelitish  history  may  illus- 
trate individual  christian  experience. 

2.  Events  illustrate  events. 

Judges  vii.  22  compared  with  Isaiah  ix.  4. 
Num.  xxi.  9  compared  with  John  iii.  14. 
Exodus  xiv.  compared  with  Isaiah  xliii.  16,  17. 

3.  Like  circumstances  are  expressed  in  the  same 
language. 

Isaiah  xxix.  13  compared  with  Matt.  xv.  8. 

Jer.  xxxi.  15  compared  with  Matt.  ii.  18. 
These,  and  others  of  the  same  kind,  are  neither 
types  nor  allegories,  but  simply  historical  illustra- 
tions; like  that  of  Luther,  when  he  exclaimed  to  his 
desponding  followers:  'What!  because  you  are  em- 
barked in  the  same  ship  with  Christ,  do  you  expect 
a  fair  wind  and  smooth  sea  all  the  way  ?  Nay,  rather 
look  out  for  storms  and  jeopardy,  and  that  too  while 
your  master  is  asleep!'  (Compare  Matt.  viii.  23-27)* 


PECULIARITIES    OF    REVELATION.  35 

In  all  these  cases,  the  language  is  plainly  to  be 
interpreted  by  the  common  laws  of  language;  and 
the  things  only  are  typical  or  illustrative.  There  is 
in  fact,  therefore,  no  case  whatever,  in  which  the  lan- 
guage of  the  bible  is  not  to  be  understood  just  like  the 
language  of  all  other  books.  It  is  the  thoughts  of 
the  scriptures,  and  not  the  words,  which  are  super- 
human. 

In  regard  to  types  and  allegories,  we  know  of 
none,  excepting  those  which  are  explained  as  such  in 
the  bible  itself.  All  the  rest  are  merely  conjectural, 
and,  though  often  ingenious,  are  worse  than  idle, 
leading  the  mind  away  from  the  truth,  perverting  it 
by  false  principles  of  interpretation,  and  making  it 
the  mere  sport  of  every  wild  fancy.  Any  one  who 
wishes  to  see  to  what  a  pitch  of  extravagance  this 
thing  can  be  carried,  will  do  well  to  consult  Sweden- 
borg's  '  True  Christian  Religion,'  (particularly  pages 
168,  172,  202,  of  the  Boston  edition).  Many  of 
the  interpretations  there  remind  us  of  the  old  com- 
mentator, who  thought  that  the  lily-work  around  the 
bellies  of  the  pillars  in  the  temple  (1  Kings  vii.  20, 
22),  signified,  that  '  if  ministers  would  do  their  duty 
and  be  pillars  in  the  church,  the  Lord  would  take 
care  of  their  bellies.' 


CHAPTER    THIRD. 


PROOF  THAT  MOSES  WAS  THE  WRITER    OF  THE  FIVE    BOOKS 
USUALLY    ASCRIBED    TO    HIM. 


I.      KAME    OF    THESE    BOOKS. 


All  manuscripts  and  printed  editions  of  the  He- 
brew sacred  books  begin  with  the  five  usually  ascrib- 
ed to  Moses.  The  old  Hebrew  name  w^as  ni^nn 
nmn  ^'li/D-in  (i.  e.  cWmishsliah  chumshae  thorah)  the 
Jive-fiftUs  of  the  law;  or  abreviated  tzi^K^rsm  n^nn  (i.  e. 
cWmishshah  chummashim)  the  five-fiftlts.  Each  book 
by  itself  was  called  i^'^-in  {chummash)  a  fifth.  To 
this  the  Greek  appellation  corresponds,  namely, 
„»T<«T£«xof  (^pentateuchos)  the  fivefold  volume^  from 
TJVT£  five^  and  '^'«='«f  an  implement  or  volume,  (Ro- 
senmueller's  Prolegomena  to  Scholia  on  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, vol.  i.  p.  1,  2). 

The  more  common  Hebrew  name  of  the  Penta- 
teuch is  n^inn  (hattorah)  the  law;  so  called  because 
the  books  contain  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  law  of 
the  Hebrew  nation.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  sep- 
arate books  was  the  first  word  or  words  in  each. 
Thus  the  first  book  was  called  n^B/«n3  (Vraeshith)  i?i 
the  beginning,  irom  its  first  word;  the  second,  nSx) 
r\iDi^  {yPaeleh  shhjioth)  and  these  the  names,  from  its 
first  two  words;  and  so  of  the  rest. 


AUTHENTICITY  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH.        37 

The  names  in  our  English  bible  are  derived  from 
the  Greek  translation  called  the  Septuagint,  and  were 
chosen  by  the  Greek  translators  or  editors  as  signifi- 
cant of  the  subjects  or  contents  of  the  several  books. 
Thus  the  first  was  called  Genesis,  because  it  gives  an 
account  of  the  origin  or  genesis  of  the  world;  the 
second  was  called  Exodus,  because  it  contains  a  his- 
tory of  the  going  out  or  exode  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt;  and  so  of  the  rest. 

II.      AUTHENTICITY    OF    THESE    BOOKS. 

In  investigating  this  subject,  I  take  it  for  granted, 
that  my  readers  know  and  acknowledge  the  follow- 
ing facts : 

1.  That  the  books,  composing  what  is  now  called 
the  Old  Testament,  originated  with  the  Hebrew  na- 
tion, and  were  a  part  of  their  literature. 

This  fact  is  as  obvious  and  as  well  ascertained  as 
any  historical  fact  can  be. 

2.  That  these  books  were  written  at  successive  and 
distant  periods  of  time,  and  were  generally  known, 
at  least  to  the  literary  part  of  the  nation,  from  their 
first  publication. 

A  simple  inspection  of  the  books,  particularly  in 
the  original  language,  will  make  this  fact  as  plain  in 
reference  to  them,  as  it  is  in  regard  to  any  series  of 
English  writers  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  to  the 
present  time. 

3.  That  the  leading  historical  circumstances,  allud- 
ed to  in  these  books,  such  as  the  removal  from  Egypt, 
the  establishment  in  Canaan,  the  institution  of  mon- 
archy, &c.  are  matters  of  fact. 

4 


36  AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

This  is  sustained  by  all  historical  testimony;  and 
besides,  it  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  admis- 
sion of  the  two  preceding  postulates. 

One  other  preliminary  remark  is  necessary  to  the 
subsequent  argument. 

The  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  particularly  the 
first  five,  are  alleged  to  be  of  higher  antiquity  than 
any  other  writings  extant;  and  from  the  nature  of 
the  case,  the  validity  of  this  claim  must  be  ascertain- 
ed or  impugned  by  an  examination  of  the  books 
themselves,  and  not  from  contemporary  sources,  for, 
by  the  very  statement,  there  are  none.  If  a  man 
were  to  affirm  that  he  had  spent  twenty  years  en- 
tirely alone  on  a  desolate  island,  you  would  judge 
what  credit  might  be  due  to  his  story  by  a  careful 
observation  of  his  language  and  character,  the  con- 
sistency or  inconsistency  of  his  narrative,  its  agree- 
ment or  disagreement  with  other  facts  known  to  you 
from  other  sources,  and  other  circumstantial  evi- 
dence of  a  similar  kind;  and  you  would  not  require 
him  to  bring  witnesses  to  testify  directly  to  the  fact 
asserted,  that  they  knew  from  personal  observation 
that  he  had  spent  twenty  years  there  entirely  alone, 
because  they  had  been  with  him  all  the  time  and 
had  seen  him. 

Some  infidel  writers  demand  evidence  in  regard  to 
the  bible  fully  as  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of  the 
case  as  this  would  be ;  and  it  is  on  such  groundless 
assumptions  that  the  chief  strength  of  their  reason- 
ing depends.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  the 
early  books  of  the  Old  Testament  must  stand  or  fall 
principally  by  internal  evidence^  by  evidence  drawn 


AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH.  39 

from  the  books  themselves;  and' this,  as  I  hope  to 
show,  is  abundantly  sufficient  to  place  them  above 
the  reach  of  suspicion. 

III.       CIRCUMSTANTIAL     EVIDENCE     OF      THE      AUTHORSHIP     OF 
MOSES. 

The  question  then  recurs,  who  was  the  writer  of 
the  first  five  books  of  the  Old  Testament? 

Universal  tradition  ascribes  them  to  Moses,  the 
great  lawgiver  of  the  Hebrew  nation.  This  is  the 
undivided  and  uncontradicted  testimony  of  Jews  and 
Christians,  orthodox  and  heretics,  orientals  and  occi- 
dentals, Persians  and  Arabians,  Greeks  and  Romans. 
It  was  first  seriously  called  in  question  by  Thomas 
Hobbes  of  England,  about  A.  D.  1650,  at  least  three 
thousand  years  after  the  first  publication  of  the  books. 

We  would  observe,  however,  that  in  the  second 
century  after  Christ,  the  small  sect  of  the  Nazarenes 
rejected  these  books,  not  on  any  critical  grounds,  not 
that  they  ever  attempted  to  prove  them  spurious; 
but  merely  because  they  disliked  some  of  the  doc- 
trines supposed  to  be  contained  in  them.  It  was  to 
their  religious  authority,  rather  than  to  their  gen- 
uineness, that  the  Nazarenes  objected. 

We  inquire,  then,  is  there  any  thing  in  the  books 
themselves,  which  contradicts,  or  throws  suspicion 
over,  this  unanimous  testimony  of  antiquity?  What 
is  the  circumstantial  evidence  in   the  case? 

The  whole  character  and  structure  of  the  books, 
all  the  circumstantial  evidence,  ratifies  and  confirms 
the  testimony  of  antiquity,  that  Moses  was  the 
writer. 


40'  AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

1 .  These  books  were  evidently  written  by  a  He- 
brew\  The  national  language  and  peculiarities,  and 
especially  the  strong  national  feeling  everywhere 
manifested  in  these  books,  make  this  too  obvious  to 
be  denied;  and  indeed  it  is  universally  admitted. 

2.  They  were  evidently  written  by  a  Hebrew  who 
was  well  acquainted  with  every  thing  relating  to 
ancient  Egypt  and  Arabia,  with  the  climate,  soil,  and 
productions  of  these  countries,  with  their  civil  his- 
tory, with  the  customs,  modes  of  dress,  and  domestic 
manners  of  the  inhabitants ;  and  who  was  also  famil- 
iar with  the  religion  and  science  of  ancient  Egypt. 
Even  a  slight  perusal  of  the  books  will  satisfy  any 
one  who  is  competent  to  judge,  that  this  is  the  fact. 

Now,  wdth  this  statement  compare  the  life  of  Mo- 
ses as  given  in  Exodus  ii.  iii.  Moses  was  born  in 
Egypt  and  lived  there  forty  years.  He  then  went  to 
Arabia,  there  married,  and  lived  forty  years  in  that 
country.  He,  therefore,  had  the  best  possible  op- 
portunity to  become  acquainted  with  every  thing 
relative  to  the  natural  and  civil  condition  of  those 
two  countries. 

But  how  could  Moses  become  familiar  with  the 
religion  and  science  of  ancient  Egypt?  Egyptian 
science  was  jealously  guarded  by  a  hereditary  priest- 
hood, and  kept  a  profound  secret  even  from  native 
Egyptians  of  the  lower  orders,  much  more  from 
slaves  so  oppressed  and  despised  as  the  Hebrew^s 
were.  The  sacerdotal  order  w^as  the  highest  rank 
of  nobility  in  the  nation;  to  it  the  king  himself  always 
belonged;  and  in  order  to  learn  any  thing  of  the 
secrets  of  Egyptian  wisdom,  it  was  necessary  to  be 


AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH.  41 

on  terms  of  personal  familiarity  with  this  proud  and 
jealous  class  of  nobles.  (Compare  Herodotus,  Book 
ii.  c.  3,  100,  111,  164,  168;  and  Jahn's  Hebrew  Com- 
monwealth, translated  by  C.  E.  Stowe,  Andover, 
1828,  p.  24).  How  could  an  enslaved  Hebrew  at- 
tain such  an  elevation?  We  know  how  this  hap- 
pened in  regard  to  Moses.  Exposed  in  early  infancy, 
for  the  purpose  of  evading  the  cruel  decree  of  a  jeal- 
ous tyrant,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  daughter  of 
the  Egyptian  king,  and  adopted  as  her  son,  he  be- 
came learned  iii  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians, 
Moses  is  the  only  Hebrew  known,  who  ever  pos- 
sessed this  advantage;  and  if  no  other  Hebrew  ever 
possessed  this ,  advantage,  no  other  one  could  have 
written  the  Pentateuch. 

3.  The  exact  correspondence  of  narrative  and  in- 
stitutions, shows  that  these  books  were  written  by 
the  author  of  the  institutions. 

The  institutions  are  not  given  continuously,  fully, 
and  in  statute  form.  They  are  interspersed  with 
the  narrative,  and  inserted  just  as  the  exigencies 
arose  which  demanded  them.  Often  they  are  at  first 
but  slightly  sketched,  and  when  afterwards  they  were 
misunderstood,  they  are  repeated  in  more  definite 
language  and  with  full  explanations. 

For  example  of  the  repetition  and  revision  of  laws 
compare 

Exod.  xxi.  2-7  with  Deut.  xv.  12-17. 

Num.  iv.  24-33  with  Num.  vii.  1-9. 

Num.  iv.  3  with  Num.  viii.  24. 

Lev.  xvii.  3,  4  with  Deut.  xii.  5,  6,  21. 


42f  AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

Exod.  xxii.  26  with  Deut.  xxiv.  6,  10-15. 

Exod.  xxii.  16,  17  with  Deut.  xxii.  29. 
None  but  the  lawgiver  himself,  who  wrote  from 
day  to  day,  as  his  laws  became  necessary,  and  revised 
them  whenever  circumstances  called  for  a  revision^ 
and  recorded  in  the  same  book  the  exigencies  that 
gave  occasion  to  their  enactment  and  revision,  would 
have  written  in  this  manner. 

4.  The  interrupted  and  broken  manner  in  which 
the  narratives  and  institutions  are  recorded,  point  to 
Moses  as  the  author. 

Burdened  with  care,  overwhelmed  with  business, 
beset  with  dangers  at  the  same  time  from  his  own 
people  and  from  their  enemies,  guiding  a  numerous 
nation  debased  by  slavery  through  a  trackless  and 
barren  wilderness,  and  preparing  them  for  freedom 
and  for  intellectual  and  moral  elevation,  he  could  write 
only  by  snatches,  and  with  a  mind  but  ill  at  ease. 

No  author  by  profession  would  ever  write  fiction 
or  true  history  in  a  style  like  this;  much  less  would 
a  religious  impostor  clothe  his  composition  in  such  a 
garb.  All  pretended  revelations,  from  the  Koran 
down  to  the  Book  of  Mormon,  are  of  a  more  contin- 
uous and  uniform  structure. 

5.  The  difference  between  Deuteronomy  and  the 
other  books  corresponds  with  the  fact  that  Moses  was 
the  writer. 

Deuteronomy,  unlike  the  other  books,  is  written  in 
a  continuous,  oratorical,  and  parental  style.  The 
patriarch  speaks  in  the  tones  of  authority  and  re- 
buke, just  as  we  should  suppose  Moses  might  talk  in 
his  old  age,  after  his  journeyings  and  his  perils  were 


■A 
AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH.  43 

over,  the  responsibilities  of  government  committed 
to  other  hands,  and  he  was  at  leisure  to  speak  out  his 
whole  heart  to  a  nation  which  had  grown  up  from 
childhood  under  his  more  than  paternal  care,  and 
which  had  been  the  object  of  his  constant  solicitude 
and  most  intense  exertions  for  more  than  half  a 
century. 

6.  The  extreme  brevity  and  simplicity  of  the 
early  parts  of  the  narrative,  and  its  gradual  accumu- 
lation till  the  time  of  Moses,  when  it  at  once  assumes 
a  settled  historical  form,  corresponds  to  the  fact  that 
Moses  was  the  author. 

7.  The  agreement  of  the  books  with  each  other, 
and  the  unity  of  design  and  the  mode  of  execution 
manifest  through  the  whole,  favors  the  supposition  of 
the  authorship  of  Moses. 

In  short,  so  far'  as  the  books  themselves  are  con- 
cerned, all  the  circumstantial  evidence  is  in  favor  of 
the  concurrent  testimony  of  antiquity,  and  there  is 
nothing  at  all  against  it. 

IV.    DIRECT    TESTIMONY    THAT    THESE    BOOKS    WERE    WRITTEN 
BY    MOSES. 

By  this  testimony,  two  points  are  to  be  proved, 
namely, 

1.  That  the  Hebrews,  from  the  earliest  times,  have 
had  books  which  were  written  by  Moses;  and 

2.  That  those  were  the  same  books  which  we  now 
possess. 

Before  entering  on  the  examination  of  this  proot, 
turn  back  to  section  ii.  of  this  chapter,  and  re-ex- 
amine the  three  postulates  there  stated  and  conceded. 


44  AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

1.  The  first  direct  testimony  on  the  two  points 
above  stated,  is  the  declaration  of  the  books  them- 
selves. 

In  Deut.  xxxi.  9-13,  24-26,  there  is  an  express 
injunction,  that  the  vv^hole  Mosaic  code  should  be  read 
to  all  the  people  assembled  at  Jerusalem  at  the  feast 
of  tabernacles  every  seventh  year.  If  Moses  w^rote 
this  precept,  then  the  Mosaic  books  were  generally 
read  every  seven  years  to  the  assembled  Hebrew 
nation,  from  the  time  of  the  death  of  Moses  till  the 
termination  of  their  national  existence;  for  we  know 
that  the  Hebrews  generally  were  punctilious  ob- 
servers of  the  Mosaic  laws,  particularly  of  those 
which  have  reference  to  feasts  and  ceremonies.  On 
this  supposition,  there  is  scarcely  a  possibility  of  de- 
ception or  corruption. 

If  Moses  did  not  write  this  precept,  then  there 
was  a  time  subsequent  to  his  death  when  it  was  first 
introduced.  On  this  supposition,  the  introducer  of 
it  would  have  imposed  upon  himself  the  task  of  per- 
suading all  the  adult  citizens  of  his  nation,  that  they 
had  heard  the  law  of  Moses  publicly  read  every 
seven  years,  when  they  had  never  heard  any  such 
thing;  or  that  they  had  been  wilfully  guilty  in  ne- 
glecting one  of  the  most  explicit  statutes  of  their  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  code.  Would  such  deception  have 
been  possible?  Would  not  such  a  charge  have  ex- 
cited to  immediate  investigation,  and  investigation 
have  lead  to  immediate  detection?  Would  any  im- 
postor needlessly  interpose  so  insurmountable  an  ob- 
stacle to  his  own  success? 


AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH.  45 

To  illustrate  the  impossibility  of  such  an  imposition, 
take  an  analogous  example.  A  century  or  two 
hence,  some  patriotic  citizens  of  this  country  may 
think  it  would  be  very  useful  to  have  the  United 
States'  constitution  publicly  read  to  the  assembled 
people  in  all  the  principal  cities  and  towns  of  the 
union,  once  in  every  seven  years.  To  effect  so  de- 
sirable a  purpose,  they  pretend  that  this  was  a  law- 
passed  when  the  constitution  was  first  adopted,  and 
not  only  passed  but  observed,  and  that  thousands  of 
people  then  living  had  actually  heard  the  constitu- 
tion thus  publicly  read;  or  that  the  nation,  for  a  long 
time,  had  lived  in  open  violation  of  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  land.  What  success  would  be  likely  to 
attend  a  measure  pf  this  kind? 

Is  it  objected  that  there  were  periods  in  the  He- 
brew history  when  the  Mosaic  law  was  neglected? 
I  answer,  never  for  so  long  a  time,  that  there  were 
not  thousands  of  Hebrew  citizens  living,  who  could 
remember  w^hen  it  was  strictly  observed.  Never  so 
universally,  that  there  w^ere  not  hundreds  who  care- 
fully perused  the  Mosaic  law  in  private,  and  scrupu- 
lously conformed  their  lives  to  it.  Even  during  the 
worst  times  of  Israelitish  idolatry,  Jehovah  declared 
that  he  had  reserved  to  himself  seven  thousand  who 
had  not  bowed  to  Baal  (1  Kings  xix.  18);  and  during 
the  long  period  of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the  Mo- 
saic books  and  the  writings  of  the  subsequent  proph- 
ets, were  to  many  pious  Hebrews  the  chief  solace  of 
their  afflictions  (Dan.  ix.  2,  13).  Consequently, 
there  has  never  been  a  time  since  the  death  of  Moses, 
when  this  precept  could  have  been  introduced.   And 


46  AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

if  this  precept  were  introduced  by  Moses  himself,  then 
there  has  never  been  a  time  when  his  laws  could 
have  been  essentially  corrupted  or  changed;  for 
since  the  Hebrews  have  lost  their  national  indepen- 
dence, the  law  of  Moses  has  been  read  by  them  in 
its  original  language,  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
every  seventh  day  instead  of  every  seventh  year. 
What  possibility  of  practising  such  an  imposition 
upon  them  has  ever  existed? 

Not  only  have  we  direct  testimony,  that  the  pre- 
cepts and  laws  were  recorded  by  Moses  (Exod.  xxiv. 
4,  7;  xxxiv.  27);  but  the  historical  narratives  also 
were  committed  to  writing  in  the  same  book  and  by 
the  same  hand  (Exod.  xvii.  14,  "1353,  bassepher,  in  the 
book;  Numb,  xxxiii.  1,  2).  The  history,  therefore, 
stands  on  the  same  ground  with  the  statutes;  and 
both  always  have  been  included,  and  are  to  the  pre- 
sent day  included,  under  the  general  name  of  the  law^ 
and  the  book  of  the  law.  The  book  of  Deuteronomy 
is  full  of  appeals  to  this  law,  and  the  book  of  this 
law  (xvii.  18,  19);  and  in  connections  where  the 
reference  is  plainly  to  historical  facts,  and  not  to 
mere  precepts  (xxviii.  61,  compared  with  vs.  59,  60; 
xxix.  19-27).  Thus  far  we  have  direct  testimony 
from  the  books  themselves. 

2.  The  second  class  of  direct  testimony  is  that  of 
the  subsequent  historical  books.  These  continually 
refer  to  the  books  of  Moses,  as  well  known  and  famil- 
iar to  the  whole  nation,  from  the  time  of  the  death 
of  Moses  to  the  termination  of  the  Old  Testament 
history. 

(See  Josh.  i.  7,  8;  xxiii.  6.     Compare  Josh.  xxiv. 
26  with  viii.  32,  34. 


AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH.  47 

See  also  1  Kings  ii.  3;  2  Kings  xxii.  8;  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  14.) 

To  prove  that  these  references  are  made  to  the 
very  same  books  of  Moses  which  we  now  possess, 
nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  make  a  careful 
comparison  of  the  passages  in  the  historical  books 
with  the  passages  alluded  to  in  the  Pentateuch. 
Thus,  compare  2  Kings  xiv.  6  with  Deut.  xxiv.  16. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  2-25  and  2  Chron.  xxxv.  1-19  with 
Lev.  xxvi.  3-45,  and  Deut.  xxvii.  ll-xxviii.  68.  In 
this  instance,  the  different  precepts  mentioned  in  the 
historical  books  as  particularly  observed  by  king 
Josiah,  are  scattered  through  various  parts  of  the 
Mosaic  books,  and  very  extensively  cover  the  ground 
in  question. 

Again,  compare  Ezra  iii.  2-6  with  Lev.  vi.  vii. 

Ezra  vi.  18  with  Num.  iii.  6-45;  viii.  11,  14. 

Compare  Neh.  i.  7-9  with  Lev.  xxvi.  41;  and 
Deut.  iv.  26,  27;  xxviii.  64;  xxx.  3-5. 

Thus  every  allusion  in  the  historical  books  has  its 
corresponding  passage  in  the  Mosaic  books;  and 
there  is  no  discrepancy  in  this  unbroken  series  of 
incidental  and  unsuspected  testimony,  continued 
through  a  period  of  more  than  a  thousand  years. 
The  books  of  Moses  were  completed  about  the  year 
1451  B.  C,  and  Nehemiah,  the  last  historical  book  of 
the  Old  Testament,  was  not  written  till  about  the 
year  430  B.  C.  It  is  important  to  notice,  also,  that 
the  series  commences  with  Joshua,  immediately  after 
the  death  of  Moses. 

3.  The  series  of  prophetical  books  affords  testi- 
mony, both  as  to  the  existence  and  identity  of  the 


48  AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

five  books  of  Moses,  equally  strong  with  that  deduc- 
ed from  the  historical  books.  To  set  this  matter  in 
a  clear  light,  let  us  take  a  few  of  the  earlier  prophets, 
in  the  order  of  time,  and  compare  their  allusions  to 
the  Mosaic  law  with  the  Pentateuch  as  we  now 
have  it. 

Joel  lived  about  650  years  after  Moses. 
Compare  Joel  i.  9,  13  with  Lev.  ii.  vi.   14;  Num. 
XV.  4,5,7;  xxviii.  7,14;  Deut.  xii.  6,7;  xvi.  10,  11. 
Amos  about  660  years  after  Moses. 
Compare  Amos  ii.  9  with  Num.  xxi.  21,  24. 
iv.  4  with  Num.  xxviii.  3,  4. 
iv.  10  with  Exod.  vii-xi. 
iv.  1 1  with  Gen.  xix.  24,  25. 
ix.  13  with  Lev.  xxvi.  5. 
Hosea  about  670  years  after  Moses. 
Compare  Hosea  ix.  10  with  Num.  xxv.  3. 

xi.  8  with  Gen.  xix.  24,  25. 
xii.  4,  5  with  Gen.  xxxii.  24,  25. 
xii.  12  with  Gen.  xxviii.  5;  xxix.  20. 
Isaiah  about  690  years  after  Moses. 
Compare  Isaiah  i.  9-14  with  Gen.  xix.  4,  and  with 
various  precepts. 
xii.  2  with  Exod.  xv.  2. 
Ii.  2  with  Gen.  xii.  2;  xvii.  2. 
liv.  9  with  Gen.  viii.  21,  22. 
Micah  about  700  years  after  Moses. 
Compare  Micah  vi.  5  with  Num.  xxii.-xxv. 
vi.  6  with  Lev.  ix.  2,  3. 
vi.  1 5  with  Lev.  xxvi.  1 6 ;  Deut.  xxviii.  33. 
We  might  go  on  with  the  same  process  of   proof 
through  the  remainder  of  the  prophets  and  the  whole 


AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH.  49 

series  of  the  New  Testament.  Indeed,  so  constant 
is  the  reference  and  so  exact  the  coincidence,  that  if 
the  Mosaic  books  were  to  be  entirely  destroyed,  the 
sense  of  them  might  be  gathered,  to  a  great  extent, 
from  the  subsequent  parts  of  the  bible.  Yet  so 
great  is  the  diversity  of  style  and  manner  in  these 
subsequent  books,  as  to  prove  conclusively,  that  they 
must  have  been  written  by  a  succession  of  different 
men,  in  distant  ages,  of  different  habits,  and  in  cir- 
cumstances altogether  diverse. 

V.     RECAPITULATION    OF    THE    ARGUMENT. 

Thus  in  favor  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Mosaic 
books,  we  have  the  unanimous  testimony  of  antiquity, 
with  nothing  in  the  books  themselves  to  discredit  it, 
and  every  thing  to  confirm  it. 

We  have  the  direct  testimony  of  the  books  them- 
selves, confirmed  by  the  whole  series  of  national 
writers  through  a  period  (including  the  New  Testa- 
ment) of  about  fifteen  hundred  years. 

We  have  observed,  also,  the  impossibility  of  impo- 
sition, interwoven  as  these  books  have  always  been 
with  the  civil  history,  the  political  institutions,  the 
literature,  and  the  religion  of  a  proud  and  once  pow- 
erful nation;  who  alone  have  survived  the  wreck  of 
ages,  and  still  exist,  a  living  miracle  in  attestation  of 
the  truth  of  a  religion  which  they  despise  and  hate, 
suffering  the  full  weight  of  the  penalty  denounced 
in  their  own  sacred  books  against  their  own  obsti- 
nate unbelief,  and  carefully  preserving,  as  their  pride 
and  their   treasure,  the   volume  which  pronounces 


50  AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    PENTATEUCH. 

the    awful    sentence   of   their    own  condemnation, 
(See  Deut.  xxviii.  15-68). 

Pagan  testimony,  so  far  as  there  is  any,  confirms 
the  authenticity  of  the  Mosaic  books.  We  have  all 
the  evidence  which  the  nature  of  the  case  admits,  and 
tenfold  more  than  that  which  satisfies  us  in  regard 
to  the  writings  of  Homer  or  Herodotus;  and  even 
more  than  we  have  for  the  genuineness  of  the  most 
distinguished  writings  in  our  own  language,  such  as 
cthe  works  of  Shakspeare  and  Milton. 


CHAPTER    FOURTH. 

HYPOTHESES    OF    THOSE  WHO  REJECT   THE    AUTHORSHIP  OF 
MOSES.       THEIR    OBJECTIONS    STATED  AND   ANSWERED. 


I.     VARIOUS    HYPOTHESES. 

I'hese  hypotheses  are  all  conjectural,  and  very 
little  is  attempted  towards  establishing  them,  in  the 
way  of  argument.  ^The  whole  force  of  argument  is 
expended  in  endeavoring  to  disprove  the  authorship 
of  Moses;  and  then  liberty  is  freely  taken  to  substitute 
any  wild  fancy,  that  may  happen  to  strike,  in  place 
of  the  common  opinion.  The  arguments  will  be 
considered  in  the  next  section;  here  I  shall  merely 
give  a  statement  of  the  several  hypotheses,  in  their 
chronological  order,  according  to  the  digest  of  pro- 
fessor Rosenmueller,  in  the  Prolegomena  to  his 
Scholia  on  the  Old  Testament  (vol.  i.  p.  17-29,  third 
edition,  Leipsic,  1821). 

1.  1650,  Thomas  Hobbes,  the  celebrated  English 
metaphysician  and  deist,  in  his  work  entitled  'Le- 
viathan,' hazarded  the  conjecture,  that  the  first  five 
books  of  the  bible  were  called  the  books  of  Moses, 
not  because  he  wrote  them,  but  because  they  relate 
to  transactions  in  which  he  was  the  principal  mover. 
He  concedes,  however,  that  Moses  might  have  writ- 


52  OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH. 

ten  those  particular  passages  which  are  said  in  the 
books  themselves  to  have  been  written  by  him  (for 
example,  Exod.  xvii.  8-14;  Num.  xxxiii.  and  the 
like);  and  also  the  Hebrew  code  of  laws  in  Deutero- 
nomy x-xxvii. 

2.  1655,  Isaac  Peyrere,  a  Frenchman  and  a  lead- 
ing writer  of  the  sect  of  Prasadamites,  who  was  wil- 
ling to  discredit  the  authority  of  the  Mosaic  books^ 
so  far  as  they  stood  in  the  way  of  his  favorite 
theory  of  the  existence  of  men  on  earth  anterior  to 
Adam,  conjectured  that  Moses  kept  a  journal  of  the 
more  important  transactions  in  which  he  was  en- 
gaged, to  which  he  prefixed  a  chronicle  of  Jewish 
affairs  from  Adam  to  his  own  times;  but  that  these 
books,  with  the  ejcception  of  a  few  fragments,  have 
long  since  perished.  This  work,  he  supposes,  was 
the  source  whence  the  book  of  Jehovali's  wars  (Num. 
xxi.  14)  was  derived,  and  from  this  last  work  the 
book  of  Numbers  was  afterwards  compiled. 

3.  1670,  Benedict  Spinoza,  the  famous  Jewish 
pantheist,  a  man  of  great  metaphysical  talent  and  a 
wayward  mind,  expressed  the  opinion  (in  Tract., 
theol.  polit.  c.  viii.  ix),  that  all  the  historical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  of  which  the  earliest  is  Deu- 
teronomy, were  w^ritten  by  one  author,  whom  he 
supposes  to  be  Ezra.  As  there  is  so  little  of  connec- 
tion between  the  several  books,  and  such  diversi- 
ties of  style  and  manner  in  them,  he  thinks  that 
Ezra  must  have  been  abruptly  called  off  from  his 
work  by  some  untoward  accident,  perhaps  sudden 
death,  and  have  left  it  in  a  very  unfinished-  state 


OBJECTIONS    TO    THE    PENTATEUCH.  53 

4.  1678,  Richard  Simon,  a  learned  French  cath- 
olic, conjectures  (Critical  History  of  Old  Testament, 
B.  I.  c.  ii.  in  French),  that  the  Pentateuch  was  thrown 
together  after  the  death  of  Moses,  from  the  notes  of 
the  public  scribes  appointed  by  him,  according  to 
the  Egyptian  custom,  to  record  the  public  transac- 
tions from  day  to  day. 

5.  1685,  John  LeCIerc,  an  active  and  learned 
theologian  of  Holland,  advanced  the  opinion,  that  the 
Pentateuch  was  composed  by  the  Hebrew  priest, 
who  was  sent  by  the  king  of  Babylon  to  instruct 
the  Samaritans  in  the  Hebrew  religion  (2  Kings 
xvii.  27,  28).  He  afterwards  acknowledged  the 
futility  of  this  hypothesis  and  rejected  it  (Disserta- 
tion ii.  concerning  the  writer  of  the  Pentateuch). 

6.  1785,  John  G^odfrey  Hasse,  a  German  writer, 
conjectured  that  the  Pentateuch  was  composed  at 
the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  such  fragments 
of  the  Mosaic  writings  as  then  existed  being  incor- 
porated with  it.  He  also  afterwards  retracted  and 
refuted  his  own  theory. 

7.  Frederic  Charles  Fulda,  another  German  wri- 
ter, is  of  opinion  that  some  things  contained  in  the 
Pentateuch,  such  as  the  decalogue,  the  song  after  the 
passage  of  the  Red  sea,  &c.  were  written  by  Moses; 
but  that  the  body  of  the  work  was  not  composed 
before  the  time  of  David. 

8.  John  Christian  Nachtigall  supposes  that  a  few 
genealogical  tables,  some  national  songs  and  tradi- 
tionary narratives,  together  with  a  few  statutes  en- 
graven on  stone  and  brazen  tables,  might  have  been 
preserved  from  very  early  times.     From  these  an- 

5* 


54  OBJECTIONS    TO  THE    PENTATEUCH* 

cient  monuments,  stories  and  ballads  were  written 
by  the  students  in  the  prophetic  schools  instituted  by- 
Samuel.  Out  of  all  these  materials,  the  joint  labors 
of  several  learned  men,  perhaps  under  the  superini- 
tendence  of  Jeremiah,  produced  the  Pentateuch  at 
the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity.  None  of  the 
genuine  wa'itings  of  Moses  are  preserved,  except  the 
decalogue  inscribed  on  tables  of  stone,  the  enumera- 
tion of  the  journeyings  of  the  Israelites  through  the 
Arabian  desert  (Num.  xxxiii),  and  a  few  short  songs. 

9.  John  Severin  Vater,  in  his  commentary  on  the 
Pentateuch  (in  German),  attempts  to  show  that  a 
part  of  Deuteronomy  and  some  portion  of  the  other 
books  might  have  been  written  as  early  as  the  times 
of  David  and  Solomon ;  but  that  the  work  could  not 
have  been  completed  in  its  present  form  till  after  the 
Babylonian  captivity. 

10.  Leonard  Bertholdt  supposes  that  the  Penta- 
teuch was  put  into  its  present  form  by  Samuel,  and 
deposited  in  the  ark  of  the  covenant;  and  that  a  copy 
of  this  work,  written  on  Egyptian  linen  by  the  hand 
of  Samuel,  was  the  hook  of  the  law  found  by  Hilkiah 
in  the  temple  (2  Kings  xxii.  8). 

11.  William  M.  L.  de  Wette.  During  the  reign 
of  Josiah,  a  volume  of  the  law  was  found  in  the  tem- 
ple (2  Kings  xxii),  which  was  only  the  book  of  Deu- 
teronomy; and  this  is  an  epitome,  by  a  later  hand,  of 
the  more  ancient  books.  The  other  four  books  were 
composed  at  different  times,  between  the  reign  of 
David  arid  that  of  Joram,  principally  near  the  time 
of  the  Babylonian  captivity. 


OBJECTIONS    TO  THK    PENTATEUCH.  55 

12.  Charles  Francis  Volney,  a  lively  and  versatile 
French  traveller,  in  his  'Researches  on  Ancient  His- 
tory' (Part  I.  c.  vi-ix.  in  French),  supposes  that  the 
Pentateuch  contains  some  things  Vi^ritten  by  Moses; 
but  that  the  books  which  we  now  have  are  the  result 
of  the  joint  labors  of  Hilkiah  the  priest,  Jeremiah  the 
prophet,  Shaphan  the  scribe,  and  Achbor,  with  the  aid 
of  king  Josiah;  and  that  they  were  written  for  the 
purpose  of  encouraging  the  Hebrews  in  their  dan- 
gerous collisions  with  Egypt,  Babylon,  and  the 
Scythians  (See  2  Kings  xxii.) 

The  hypothesis  of  professor  Gesenius,  which 
agrees  in  the  main  with  that  of  de  Wette,  is  examin- 
ed and  completely  refuted  by  professor  Stuarl,  in  the 
North  American  Review,  for  April  1826,  and  repub- 
lished in  the  Biblical  Repository,  for  October  1832. 

Such  are  the  most  plausible  hypotheses  of  the 
most  able  men,  who  have  rejected  the  authorship  of 
Moses;  and  what  have  they  to  stand  upon?  Com- 
pare this  mass  of  fog  and  contradiction  with  the  un- 
divided testimony  of  antiquity,  that  Moses  was  the 
writer  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  exact  coincidence 
of  this  testimony  with  all  the  facts  in  the  case,  as 
exhibited  in  the  preceding  chapter,  and  the  over- 
whelming amount  of  evidence  from  other  sources ; 
and  then  say  how  it  is,  if  you  can,  that  men,  and 
learned  men  too,  can  reject  that  which  has  all  evi- 
dence in  its  favor,  and  believe  that  which,  has  no 
evidence  at  all  to  support  it?  A  man  who  is  seriously 
inquiring  after  truth,  can  never  fall  into  follies  like 
these;  and  as  to  the  man  who  does  not  in  simplicity 
love  the  truth,  who  investigates  for  the  purpose  of 


56  OBJECTIONS    TO  THE    PENTATEUCH. 

finding  something  to  establish  a  favorite  theory,  or 
studies  for  the  pleasure  of  forming  ingenious  conjec- 
tures, of  such  it  is  generally  true  that  much  learning 
makes  them  mad,  and  the  more  learning  they  have,  the 
more  mad  they  become. 

But  what  are  the  objections  against  the  authorship 
of  Moses,  which  have  led  men  to  adopt  such  a  vari- 
ety of  conjectures,  to  escape  from  the  admission  of 
this  simple  fact?     This  is  our  next  topic. 

II.    OBJECTIONS    TO  THE  AUTHORSHIP    OF    MOSES. 

First  objection. — The  books  contain  some  pas- 
sages of  w^hich  Moses  w^as  not  the  writer. 

This  is  true.  Who  ever  wrote  a  historical  work 
extending  through  a  period  of  twenty-five  hundred 
years,  without  making  some  quotations  from  preced- 
ing writings?  And  does  the  existence  of  such  quo- 
tations, accurately  and  literally  made,  diminish  the 
value  of  the  history  or  increase  it? 

In  Num.  xxiii.  xxiv.  there  are  some  highly  finished 
and  magnificent  passages  of  poetry  ascribed  to  Ba- 
laam. If  the  book  be  worthy  of  credit,  these  are  not 
the  compositions  of  Moses,  but  of  Balaam;  for  Moses 
does  not  profess  to  write  fiction  but  true  history.. 
Num.  xxi.  vs.  14,  15,  there  is  a  quotation  from  an 
ancient  writing  called  the  book  of  Jehovah^s  tears; 
vs.  17,  18,  a  quotation  from  a  joyous  song  of  the 
Israelites,  with  which  they  celebrated  the  unexpect- 
ed discovery  of  a  well  in  the  Arabian  desert;  and  vs. 
27-30,  an  extract  from  an  ancient  war-song  of  the 
Amorites  on  occasion  of  their  victory  over  Moab. 
We  suppose  all  these  passages  to  be  what  they  pro- 


OBJECTIONS    TO  THE    PENTATEUCH.  57 

fess  to  be,  namely,  quotations,  and  not  compositions 
by  Moses;  for  if  Moses  did  write  them  they  must 
be  fictitious,  and  not  true,  as  they  profess  to  be. 

Again,  Gen.  xlix.  we  have  the  dying  address  of 
Jacob  to  his  sons,  apparently  word  for  word  as  he 
uttered  it;  and  Gen.  xxvii.  the  blessing  of  Isaac  on 
his  two  sons.  So,  several  of  the  first  chapters  of  Gen- 
esis, if  we  may  judge  from  their  style  and  structure, 
and  the  several  distinct  titles  by  which  the  different 
narratives  are  introduced,  are  not  original  composi- 
tions by  Moses,  but  selections  made  by  him,  under 
divine  direction,  from  very  ancient  documents,  in  his 
possession,  by  different  writers  at  different  periods. 
Perhaps  the  same  may  be  said  of  Gen.  xxxvi.  which 
gives  an  account  of  the  posterity  of  Esau;  and  of 
Gen.  xxxviii.  which  relates  the  crimes  and  follies  of 
Judah  and  his  sons. 

For  proof  of  the  compilation  of  the  early  parts  of 
Genesis  from  several  different  and  very  ancient  doc- 
uments, I  refer  my  readers  to  a  single  fact,  which  is 
very  obvious  in  the  English  translation,  and  still  more 
so  in  the  Hebrew  original;  I  mean  the  different 
names  of  the  Supreme  Being,  which  occur  in  the 
different  documents.  In  Gen.  i-ii.  3  (which  is  one 
piece  of  composition,  the  second  chapter  really  be- 
ginning with  what  is  put  as  the  fourth  verse,  as  the 
title,  these  are  the  generations^  shows)  the  name  of 
the  Supreme  Being  is  uniformly  God,  cri'',''?  (aUohim). 
In  the  second  document,  including  ii.  4-iii.  the  name 
of  the  Supreme  Being  is  uniformly  Jehovah  God, 
a^rlSx  nin""^  {y\hovah  aHohim) ;  in  the  third  document, 
including  chapter  iv.  it  is  Jehovah  only;  in  chapter  v. 


56  OBJECTIONS    TO  THE    PENTATEUCH. 

God  only,  except  in  vs.  29,  where  a  quotation  is 
made,  and  the  name  Jehovah  used;  in  vi-ix.  God 
and  Jehovah  are  used  promiscuously,  except  once 
(ix.  26),  where  a  quotation  is  made  and  the  name 
Jehovah  God  is  used;  in  xii.  xiii.  Jehovah  only;  in 
xiv.  in  connection  with  Melchizedeck  there  is  a  name 
of  the  Supreme  Being  altogether  peculiar,  that  is, 
God  Most  High,  jV^J^  ^8<  {ael  elyon)^  except  v.  22, 
where  Abraham  prefixes  to  this  appellation  the  name 
Jehovah.  It  is  inconceivable  that  all  this  should  be 
the  result  of  mere  accident.  The  changes  of  the 
name  correspond  exactly  to  the  changes  in  the  nar- 
rative and  the  titles  of  the  several  pieces ;  and  each 
document  uniformly  preserves  the  same  name,  ex- 
cept when  a  quotation  is  made,  and  then,  as  the  fidel- 
ity of  history  requires,  the  name  used  by  the  person 
introduced  as  speaking,  is  inserted.  It  is  perhaps 
impossible  to  decide  definitely  respecting  the  amount 
of  quotation  of  this  kind,  but  in  the  first  fifteen  chap- 
ters of  Genesis  it  seems  to  be  very  considerable. 

Now  do  all  these  accurate  quotations  impair  the 
credit  of  the  Mosaic  books,  or  increase  it?  Is  Mar- 
shall's Life  of  Washington  to  be  regarded  as  unworthy 
of  credit,  because  it  contains  copious  extracts  from 
Washington's  correspondence,  and  literal  quotations 
from  important  public  documents?  Is  not  its  value 
greatly  enhanced  by  this  circumstance?  Is  not  the 
clear,  direct  style  of  judge  Marshall  as  obvious 
throughout  the  work,  as  it  would  have  been  if  it  had 
not  contained  a  single  quotation?  The  objection  is 
altogether  futile.  In  the  common  editions  of  the  bible 
the  Pentateuch  occupies  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 


OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH.  59 

pages,  of  which  perhaps  ten  may  be  taken  up  with 
quotations.  This  surely  is  no  very  large  proportion  for 
a  historical  work  extending  through  so  long  a  period. 
Second  objection. — The  books  contain  some 
passages  which  could  not  have  been  written  till  after 
the  death  of  Moses. 

This  also  is  true.  Deut.  xxxiv.  relates  the  death 
and  burial  of  Moses,  in  the  style  of  plain,  sober  his- 
tory, and  not  in  that  of  prophecy.  Again,  Gen. 
xxxvi.  31-39,  there  is  a  continuation  of  the  catalogue 
of  Edomitish  chiefs,  supplementary  to  the  original 
catalogue  left  by  Moses. 

But  the  strength  of  this  objection,  by  those  who 
offer  it,  is  made  to  rest  principally  on  the  change  of 
obsolete  for  well  known  names  of  places.  For  ex- 
ample. Gen.  xiv.  14,  it  is  said  that  Abraham  pursued 
the  eastern  chieftains  to  Dan;  but  in  Joshua  xix.  47 
and  Judges  xviii.  29,  we  find  that  this  city  was  then 
called  Leshem  or  Laish,  and  that  it  was  not  called 
Dan  till  some  centuries  after  the  death  of  Abraham, 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  Israelitish  tribe  of  that 
name,  and  made  their  chief  city.  So  in  Gen.  xiii.  1 8, 
Hebron  is  mentioned;  but  we  find  by  Joshua  xiv.  15 
and  XV.  1 3,  that  the  original  name  of  the  city  was 
Kirjath-Arba,  and  that  it  did  not  receive  the  name 
of  Hebron  till  several  centuries  after  the  time  of 
Abraham.  So  in  regard  to  Bethel,  Gen.  xiii.  3, 
originally  called  Luz,  Gen.  xxviii.  19. 

There  are  some  other  passages  of  the  same  kind, 
but  those  enumerated  are  sufficient  to  set  forth  the 
objection  in  all  its  force.  The  facts  are  admitted, 
the  inference  denied. 


60  OBJECTIONS    TO    THE   PENTATEUCH. 

It  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  economy  of  revela- 
tion, that  subsequent  sacred  writers  should  be  author- 
ized to  give  such  additional  notices  and  make  such 
verbal  changes  in  the  preceding  books,  as  might  be 
necessary  to  render  them  intelligible  to  succeeding 
generations.  Examine  the  passages  objected  to.  It 
is  important  as  matter  of  history,  to  know  something 
of  the  death  and  burial  of  Moses,  and  these  facts  are 
inserted  in  their  proper  place.  The  sacred  writers 
regarded  their  writings  as  public  property,  and 
were  not  at  all  concerned  to  claim  individual  credit 
for  every  word  they  wrote.  In  modern  books,  these 
necessary  additional  notices  are  put  in  by  way 
of  note  or  appendix;  but  the  ancients  knew  nothing 
of  these  arts  of  modern  authorship,  and  whatever 
was  necessary  for  them  to  write,  must  be  written  in 
the  text.  Interpolation  is  something  added  aside 
from  the  author's  purpose;  and  is  a  very  different 
thing  from  a  note  in  explanation  or  illustration  of  a 
writer,  added  by  an  authorized  hand,  in  exact  and 
ascertained  coincidence  with  the  author's  design. 

Examine  next  the  change  of  names.  Observe, 
the  Hebrew  name  is  substituted  for  the  pagan — the 
sacred  for  the  profane.  Where  a  place  was  gene- 
rally known  by  both  names,  both  are  inserted: 
see  Gen.  xiv.  2,  7,  8;  Deut.  iii.  9;  iv.  48,  and 
numerous  other  passages.  Where  the  pagan  or 
ancient  name  had  become  entirely  obsolete,  in  the 
process  of  transcription  the  obsolete  name  was 
either  entirely  omitted  or  mentioned  only  once  or 
twice,  for  the  purpose  of  explanation,  as  in  the  cases 
of  Laish,  Kirjath-Arba,  and  Luz,  above  referred  to. 


OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH.  61 

Now  is  not  this  just  as  it  should  be,  if  it  were  intend- 
ed that  the  bible  should  be  intelligible?  The  thing 
wanted  is,  to  direct  the  mind  of  the  reader  to  the 
right  place;  and  how  is  this  to  be  done,  but  by  call- 
ing the  place  by  the  name  by  which  it  is  known  to 
the  reader?  Take  the  example  of  the  principal  com- 
mercial city  of  the  west.  It  was  once  called  Losan- 
tiville.  But  in  order  to  tell  the  truth  about  any 
transaction  that  occurred  here  at  that  time,  must 
we  say  that  it  took  place  in  Losantiville,  and  as  we 
avoid  a  falsehood,  avoid  saying  that  it  took  place  in 
Cincinnati?  And  if,  at  some  future  time,  it  should 
be  very  generally  unknown  that  this  city  ever  bore 
the  first  name,  and  it  should  become  necessary  to 
'-epublish  a  work  relating  to  the  city,  originally  writ- 
ten when  it  bore  that  name,  would  it  not  be  neces- 
sary to  add  the  name  Cincinnati  to  that  of  Losanti- 
ville, if  we  would  have  the  readers  understand  what 
place  is  meant?  Take  another  example.  The  chief 
city  of  New  England  was  once  called  Shawmut, 
then  Trimountain,  finally,  Boston.  Now,  in  order 
to  tell  the  truth,  must  we  say,  that  Mr.  Blacks  tone 
came  to  Shawmut,  and  Mr.  Cotton  came  to  Tri- 
mountain, and  Sir  Harry  Vane  came  to  Boston?  Or, 
in  order  to  be  understood,  must  we  not  say,  that  all 
these  men  came  to  Boston?  And  in  republishing  an 
ancient  work,  must  not  the  obsolete  name  be  ex- 
plained by  the  well  known  name?  This  is  all  that 
is  done  in  the  bible;  only  the  name  is  explained  in 
the  text,  instead  of  a  marginal  note — a  refinement 
in  the  art  of  bookmaking  then  entirely  unknown. 

6 


6'2  OBJECTIONS    TO  THE    PENTATEUCH, 

The  bible  regards  only  important,  essential  truths^ 
and  has  no  concern  for  the  unimportant  trifles  which 
pertain  merely  to  the  etiquette  of  authorship. 

Something  also  has  been  attempted  in  the  way  of 
objection  from  the  expression,  and  the  Canaanite 
was  then  in  the  land  (Gen.  xii.  6;  xiii.  7,  and  other 
places);  as  though  this  expression  implied,  that  at 
the  time  when  these  books  were  written,  the  Ca- 
naanites  must  have  been  already  expelled.  Nothing 
can  be  more  empty  and  foolish  than  this  objection. 
The  Canaanites  originally  dwelt  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Persian  gulf  (Eichhorn's  Introduction,  vol.  iii.  p. 
169),  and  had  no  inheritance  in  the  land  of  Canaan, 
which  God  had  given  to  Abraham,  but  into  which 
they  had  emigrated,  or  (to  use  a  phrase  well  under- 
stood in  our  new  settlements)  in  which  they  were 
squatters.  It  is  the  intention  of  the  sacred  writer 
simply  to  show,  that  when  Abraham  went  to  take 
possession  of  the  land  which  God  had  given  him,  the 
Canaanite  was  already  there  before  him. 

The  proper  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  TX  {aaz\ 
(in  these  passages  translated  then)^  is  at  that  time, 
(See  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  Leipsic,  1833,  on 
the  word). 

The  objection  derived  from  what  is  said  of  the 
name  Jehovah  (Exod.  vi.  2-7)  is  equally  groundless. 
It  is  the  meaning  of  the  word — the  self -existent^  the 
unchangeable — that  is  here  brought  to  view  (Com- 
pare Exod.  iii.  14).  In  his  dealings  with  the  patri- 
arcns,  God  had  shown  himself  to  be  the  Almighty  ; 
in  his  dealings  with  their  descendants  ne  wouia  snow 
himself  to  be  the  self-existent  and  unchangeable. 


OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH.  63 

The  same  objection  is  insisted  upon  by  reference 
to  such  passages  as  Deut.  iv.  46,  47,  49.  It  is  alleg- 
ed that  these  passages  should  be  translated  beyond 
Jordan,  or  on  the  other  side  of  Jordan,  and  not  on  this 
side  Jordan,  SiS  in  our  translation;  and  that,  as  these 
passages  refer  to  places  east  of  Jordan,  and  as  Moses 
must  have  written  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  and 
not  on  the  w^est,  these  passages  could  not  have  been 
written  by  him. 

Admitting  the  statement  to  be  true,  the  same 
answer  that  is  given  in  respect  to  the  change  of 
names,  is  applicable  also  here.  But  the  objection  is 
groundless  in  point  of  fact.  The  Hebrew  word  *i?J^ 
(aeber),  which  the  objection  assumes  to  be  restricted 
to  the  meaning  beyond  or  on  the  other  side,  has,  by 
the  custom  of  Hebrew  speech,  a  more  extensive  and 
indefinite  application;  and  which  side  of  the  river  is 
intended,  is  designated  by  adding  to  the  word  "i^j;, 
the  word  nnnm  (mizrachah)  eastward,  or  na'i;;n  (maa- 
rabah)  westward.  For  proof  of  this,  examine  Josh, 
v.  1;  ix.  1;  xii.  7;  1  Chron.  xxvi.  3,  where  the  same 
word  '15J'*  is  used  in  reference  to  the  western  side  of 
Jordan;  so  that  if  the  use  of  this  word  in  Deuter- 
onomy proves  that  the  Pentateuch  was  written 
after  the  Israelites  dwelt  on  the  western  side  of  Jor- 
dan, the  use  of  the  same  word'  in  the  other  pas- 
sages quoted,  must  prove  that  the  books  of  Joshua 
and  Chronicles  were  written  while  they  dwelt  on 
the  east  side  of  Jordan,  which  is  contrary  to  well 
known  and  universally  acknowledged  fact. 

The  same  principles  apply  to  all  other  objections 


64  OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH. 

of  this  class,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  specify  par- 
ticulars any  further. 

Before  we  leave  this  objection,  it  will  be  interest- 
ing to  consider  one  fact  in  reference  to  the  Penta- 
teuch, which,  to  a  mind  accustomed  to  investigations 
of  this  sort,  affords  indubitable  evidence  of  its  au- 
thenticity. It  is  this,  that  the  narrative  throughout 
keeps  pace  exactly  with  the  natural  progress  of 
society,  and  in  the  minutest  circumstances  accu- 
rately corresponds  to  the  manners  appropriate  to 
each  period  and  place.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  achievements  in  works  of  fiction;  and  the 
most  labored  and  ingenious  attempts  at  literary 
forgery  have  been  detected  by  slight  inaccuracies  of 
this  kind,  of  which  the  frauds  of  Chatterton  and 
Ireland  are  memorable  examples.  Much  more  diffi- 
cult, and  indeed  utterly  impossible  would  it  have  been 
to  preserve  this  congruity  in  a  fictitious  work  running 
through  so  long  a  period,  and  embracing  such  a 
variety  of  manners,  as  come  within  the  scope  of 
the  Pentateuch;  especially  at  that  early  age,  before 
writing  had  begun  to  be  an  art,  and  when  there  were 
no  authors  whose  ingenuity  was  sharpened  by  the  ne- 
cessity of  earning  their  bread  by  the  labors  of  the 
pen.  All  ancient  attempts  at  forgery  are,  in  this 
respect,  awkward  and  incongruous  in  the  extreme, 
and  open  to  immediate  detection. 

Examine  a  few  passages  of  Genesis  in  reference 
to  this  point.  Abraham  comes  from  the  east,  a  rich 
and  powerful  man,  but  a  simple  herdsman.  When 
guests  arrive,  he  runs  himself  to  the  herd  and  selects 
a  calf  for  their  repast,  while  his  wife  prepares  their 


OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH.  65 

bread;  and  he  sets  milk  before  them  instead  of  wine, 
although  the  grape  had  then  long  been  cultivated 
(Gen.  xviii.  compare  xiv.  18).  Isaac,  made  rich  by 
the  inheritance  of  his  father,  and  luxurious  by  inter- 
course with  the  Phoenician  merchants,  drinks  wine 
and  has  a  taste  for  venison  prepared  with  careful 
cookery  (Gen.  xxvii).  Jacob,  instead  of  advancing 
in  refinement  and  luxury,  driven  from  his  father's 
house  and  seeking  a  shelter  among  the  eastern  no- 
madic relatives  of  his  mother,  was  brought  back  to 
the  pastoral  simplicity  of  his  grandfather  Abraham. 
He  was  a  plain  man  dwelling  in  tents  (Gen.  xxv.  27). 
Esau,  on  the  contrary,  who  remained  in  Canaan  on 
the  grounds  of  his  father,  meets  his  pastoral  brother 
with  the  retinue  of  a  prince  (Gen.  xxxiii).  Trace  also 
the  gradual  rise  and  increase  of  commercial  inter- 
course (Gen.  xxxvii.  25;  xli.  57;  xlii.  27).  In  Abra- 
ham's time  there  were  no  such  facilities  for  trade; 
and  when  a  famine  arose  in  Canaan,  he  was  obliged 
to  take  his  family  into  Egypt  to  find  sustenance  for 
them  (Gen.  xii.  10).  Observe  again  the  primitive 
simplicity  of  the  regal  office,  and  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  a  formal  and  luxurious  court  in  Egypt 
(Gen.  xiv.  xii.  14,  15;  xliii.  32;  xlvii.  7;  xl.  1.  Com- 
pare xxi.  22;  xxvi.  26).  In  Mesopotamia,  we  find 
Jacob  receiving  compensation,  not  in  silver  and 
gold,  but  in  flocks  and  herds  and  servants  (Gen.  xxx. 
xxxi);  but  in  Canaan,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Phoenician  merchants,  we  see  money  told  by  weight 
even  in  Abraham's  time  (Gen.  xxiii.  16);  and  in  the 
time  of  Jacob,  coin  is  in  circulation  (Gen.  xxxiii.  19). 
So  in  the  first  part  of  Genesis  we  hear  nothing  of 


66  OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH. 

horses  and  carriages;  and  they  are  first  mentioned 
when  Joseph  sends  for  his  father  to  come  to  Egypt 
(Gen.  xlv.  19-27;  xlvii.  17).  This  corresponds  to 
the  historical  fact,  tliat  the  Egyptians  were  the  first 
people  who  trained  horses  for  domestic  use  (Compare 
1  Kings  X.  28,  29).  Thus  in  all  the  little  circum- 
stances, by  which  literary  forgeries  are  always  de- 
tected, we  find  the  Pentateuch  minutely  accurate, 
and  giving  the  most  unequivocal  proof  of  authenti- 
city. (See  Eichhorn's  Introduction  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, vol.  iii.  p.  151-155,  in  German). 

Third  objection. — The  language  and  style  of  the 
Pentateuch  too  nearly  resemble  that  of  the  later 
writers,  to  admit  the  supposition  that  it  was  written 
in  the  age  of  Moses. 

This  allegation  is  denied  entirely.  There  is  a 
striking  difference  in  language  and  style,  both  gene- 
rally and  in  the  use  of  single  words.  The  differences 
of  orthography  are  very  great,  and  of  the  same  kind 
with  those  we  observe  in  English  books  written  at 
different  periods.  There  are  also  in  the  Pentateuch 
many  words,  which  are  obsolete  in  the  subsequent 
books,  either  not  used  at  all,  or  used  in  an  entirely 
different  sense.  Professor  Jahn  of  Vienna  has  enu- 
merated more  than  two  hundred  words  of  this  kind, 
exclusive  of  those  which  occur  but  once,  and  of 
those  which  there  might  be  no  occasion  to  use  in 
the  subsequent  books.  For  example,  in  the  Penta- 
teuch we  have  the  words  ^VJ  (naar)  and  «^n  (hua) 
instead  nv:  (no' rah)  and  «'n  (Jiia)  damsel  and  she-^ 
the  third  person  plural  feminine  of  verbs  is  written 
without  final  n  in  the  Pentateuch,  but  with  it  in  all 


OB^TECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH.  67 

the  other  books,  as,p^ni^  {tihyena)  for  (nr^riir)  tihyenah)^ 
|K3r^  (tabona)  for  nJK^n  (tabonah)^  and  many  other 
instances  of  the  same  kind.  The  month  called  T:ii< 
(aabib)  in  the  Pentateuch,  is  called  p'J  {nisan)  in  the 
later  books.  So  the  word  nan  (dagah)  in  the  sense  to 
multiply,  ^3I  (zabad)  in  the  sense  to  give,  *iot  (zakur) 
meaning  male,  &c.  There  is  the  same  difference  in 
the  use  of  whole  phrases.  For  example,  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch; to  die  is  to  be  gathered  to  one's  people  (Gen. 
xlix.  29,  33),  in  the  other  books,  it  is  to  be  gathered 
to  one's  fathers  (Judges  ii.  10;  2  Chron.  xxiv.  28),  or 
to  be  gathered  to  one's  sepulchres  (2  Kings  xxii.  20.) 

It  is  also  worthy  of  notice,  in  reference  to  this 
objection,  that  all  the  foreign  words,  which  occur  in 
the  Pentateuch,  are  Egyptian,  while  the  foreign 
words  of  the  other  books  are  Aramean.  Now,  the 
Arabians  spoke  essentially  the  same  language  as  the 
Hebrews,  and  allowing  these  books  to  have  been 
written  by  Moses,  the  Egyptian  was  the  only  foreign 
language  from  which  words  could  have  been  bor- 
rowed; but  on  the  supposition  that  the  Pentateuch 
was  written  after  the  Hebrews  were  settled  in  Ca- 
naan, the  foreign  words  must  have  been  borrowed 
mostly  from  their  Syrian  neighbors,  as  is  the  fact  in 
reference  to  all  the  books  written  after  that  period. 
For  examples  of  Egyptian  words  in  the  Pentateuch, 
see  ^"13 J<  {abraek,  Gen.  xli.  43)  rendered  in  the  En- 
glish translation,  bow  the  knee,  ^n«  {aachu,  Gen.  xli.  2) 
translated  meadow,  tyt^  (shaesh,  Exod.  xxvi.  1),  trans- 
lated Jlne  linen,  ix'  («/'or,  Exod.  i.  22),  translated 
the  river;  and  several  other  words  of  the  same  kind. 
(Compare  Rosenmueller's  Scholia  on  the  Old  Testa- 


68  OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH. 

ment,  vol.  i.  p.  30-32;  and  Jahn's  Introduction  to 
the  Old  Testament,  translated  by  professor  Turner, 
p.  177,  179). 

Again,  most  of  the  changes  which  take  place  in 
the  orthography  of  a  language,  occur  in  the  vowels 
rather  than  in  the  consonants,  and  as  the  Hebrew 
bible  was  originally  written  mostly  without  vowels — 
these  being  added  by  the  Massorites  after  the  He- 
brew had  ceased  to  be  a  spoken  language — there  must 
of  course  be  much  fewer  archaisms  than  occur  in 
books  where  the  vowels  are  all  written.  So  the 
Koran,  being  originally  written  without  vowels,  is 
as  well  understood  now  as  it  was  in  the  time  of 
Mohammed;  but  if  the  text  were  to  be  read  with  the 
pronunciation  of  the  Mohammedan  period,  proba- 
bly many  words  would  appear  obsolete.  The  same 
is  true,  to  a  great  extent,  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Syrian  church. 

Again,  changes  in  language  are  produced  by 
change  of  circumstances,  advancement  in  the  arts 
and  sciences,  intercourse  with  foreigners,  multiplici- 
ty of  writers,  &c.  Now  as  the  Hebrews  were  a 
simple,  secluded,  agricultural  people,  avoiding  inter- 
course with  foreigners,  and  religiously  attached  to 
every  thing  inherited  from  their  ancestors,  there  was 
very  little  opportunity  for  change  of  language,  till 
the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  when  it  under- 
went a  very  great  change. 

Finally,  literal  archaisms  were  gradually  smoothed 
away  in  the  process  of  transcription;  as  the  orthogra- 
phy of  our  English  bibles  has  been  several  times 
changed,  since  its  first  publication  under  king  James, 


OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH.  69 

in  order  to  make  it  conformable  to  the  different 
modes  of  orthography,  which  have  prevailed  at  differ- 
ent periods  since  that  time.  This  is  very  evident 
to  any  one  who  examines  the  vowel  points  of  the 
Hebrew  text  in  reference  to  the  consonants  with 
which  they  are  placed. 

Fourth  objection. — The  inequalities  of  style  and 
fragmentary  structure  of  the  whole  work,  show  that 
it  could  not  have  been  the  composition  of  one  man 
in  one  period,  but  of  several  men  at  different  periods. 

In  reply  to  this  objection,  we  say — 

1.  It  has  already  been  shown,  that  though  Moses 
was  the  writer  of  these  books,  he  has  inserted  in  his 
work,  literal  and  somewhat  copious  extracts  from 
documents  still  more  ancient;  so  that  there  are  in 
fact,  in  this  work  of  Moses,  fragments  of  the  writings 
of  several  men,  at  different  periods.  (See  p.  56-58). 

2.  It  has  been  shown,  that  the  circumstances  un- 
der which  Moses  wrote,  necessarily  led  to  those  ine- 
qualities of  style,  and  the  fragmentary  structure 
stated  in  the  objection;  and  that  if  the  fact  on  which 
the  objection  is  founded,  did  not  exist,  it  would  be  a 
very  strong  presumptive  argument  against  the  au- 
thorship of  Moses.  (See  p.  42). 

3.  The  contents  of  the  books  are  various,  and 
therefore,  the  style  and  structure  ought  to  vary 
to  suit  the  constant  variety  of  subject. 

In  the  books  of  Moses,  we  have  plain  narrative, 
sprightly  dialogue,  impassioned  eloquence,  the  lyric 
ode,  the  didactic  poem,  legal  enactments,  and  every 
variety  of  composition  known  to  the  ancients;  and 
written,  too,  under  every  variety  of  circumstance, 


70  OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH. 

from  the  vigor  of  manhood,  and  the  pressure  of  care 
and  numerous  engagements,  to  extreme  old  age  and 
comparative  ease.  What  man,  in  his  senses,  would 
expect  Moses  to  v^^rite  all  his  compositions  in  the 
same  style? 

All  multifarious  M^riters,  who  write  with  skill,  are 
unequal  in  their  style.  Examine  the  different  compo- 
sitions of  Edmund  Burke  or  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and 
you  will  find  as  great  inequalities  of  style  as  you  can 
find  in  the  books  of  Moses.  A  forgery  w^ould  be 
altogether  likely  to  preserve  greater  uniformity;  for, 
as  has  been  already  remarked,  all  forged  revelations, 
from  the  Koran  downward,  are  of  a  structure  com- 
paratively even  and  uniform. 

4.  The  general  unity  of  design  manifest  in  the 
books  of  Moses  has  already  been  alluded  to. 

III.     SUMMARY    VIEW    OF    THE    ARGUMENT. 

In  favor,  then,  of  the  authenticity  of  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  we  have 

1.  The  unanimous  and  uncontradicted  testimony 
of  antiquity: 

2.  With  this  all  the  internal  evidence  exactly  cor- 
responds, as  has  been  exemplified  in  a  variety  of 
particulars : 

3.  The  declarations  of  the  books  themselves  could 
have  been  made  by  none  but  Moses: 

4.  The  whole  series  of  Hebrew  literature  rests  on 
these  books,  and  demonstrates  that  they  emanated 
from  Moses: 

5.  The  contrary  hypotheses  are  self-contradictory, 
and  entirely  without  foundation: 


OBJECTIONS    TO    THE  PENTATEUCH.  71 

6.  All  the  objections  to  the  authenticity  of  these 
books  are  susceptible  of  an  easy  and  satisfactory 
answer, 

IV.    CONCLUSION. 

In  conclusion,  I  request  the  reader  seriously  to 
ponder  the  following  plain  questions: 

1.  Why  is  it  that  men  demand  evidence  in  regard 
to  the  bible,  which  they  never  think  of  demanding 
in  reference  to  any  thing  else;  and  which,  in  relation 
to  all  other  subjects,  they  would  pronounce  at  once 
to  be  unreasonable? 

2.  Why  do  they  allow  weight  to  objections  in 
reference  to  the  bible,  to  which  they  would  allow  no 
weight  whatever  in  reference  to  any  thing  else; 
and  which,  in  relation  to  all  other  subjects,  they 
would  pronounce  at  once  to  be  absurd? 

This  is  a  practical  matter  of  the  deepest  interest, 
and  every  man  must  decide  and  act  on  his  own 
responsibility. 


CHAPTER   FIFTH. 


ORIGIN    OF   ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 


I.  PROGRESS    OF   THE  ANCIENTS  IN    THE    ARTS   AND    SCIENCES. 

It  has  been  objected  to  the  antiquity  claimed  for 
the  earlier  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  more 
particularly  to  the  extremely  ancient  written  docu- 
ments referred  to  and  quoted  in  these  books,  that  at 
so  very  early  a  period,  men  must  have  been  in  an 
almost  infantile  condition,  and  that  it  is  quite  impro- 
bable that  they  had  then  discovered  sufficient  mate- 
rials of  vi^riting,  or  invented  the  alphabet.  Hence  it 
is  inferred  that  the  books  must  have  been  compiled  at 
a  period  comparatively  recent,  and  being  but  the 
relics  of  oraltraditions,  propagated  through  thousands 
of  years,  can  at  best  be  entitled  to  but  little  credit. 
Such  an  opinion  can  proceed  only  from  that  igno- 
rance and  undervaluing  of  antiquity,  which  is  almost 
a  characteristic  of  the  present  age.  Many  seem  to 
think  that  men  have  never  known  much  of  any  thing, 
until  very  lately. 

I  would  not  elevate  the  ancients  at  the  expense  of 
the  moderns,  for  I  know  and  rejoice  in  the  fact,  that 
society  has  been  continually  advancing,  though 
slowly  and  not  in  a  direct  line,  but  in  progressive 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  73 

circles,  retrograding  in  parts,  while  it  advances  on 
the  whole.  In  many  things  we  are  in  advance  of 
the  ancients;  but  in  some  things  we  are  quite  as  far 
behind  them.  It  is  the  extreme  of  folly  and  vanity 
to  imagine  that  the  human  race  has  slept  in  a  condi- 
tion of  half  idiocy  till  the  commencement  of  the  eigh- 
teenth or  nineteenth  century — and  that  men  have 
never  put  forth  strong  and  successful  effort  till  our 
own  times.  A  little  attention  to  ancient  history 
would  soon  dissipate  all  such  notions. 

As  early  as  the  sixth  generation  from  Adam,  we 
find  the  arts  of  working  the  metals,  and  of  manufac- 
turing both  wind  and  stringed  instruments  of  music, 
introduced  by  Jubal  and  Tubal-cain,  (Gen.  iv.  21, 
22,  the  words  '  organ'  and  '  harp',  as  in  our  version, 
do  not  express  the  full  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
words  3J,=ii^  (augab)  and  "^lii^  {kinn.or)\  which  are  gene- 
ral, signifying  all  kinds  of  wind  and  stringed  instru- 
ments). This  early  invention  of  musical  instruments 
is  thus  poetically  celebrated  by  Dry  den : 

'When  Jubal  struck  the  chorded  shell, 

His  listening  brethren  stood  around,  » 

And  wondering,  on  their  faces  fell, 

To  worship  that  celestial  sound  : 

Less  than  a  god  they  thought,  there  could  not  dwell 

Within  the   hollow  of  that  shell, 

Which  spoke    so  sweetly  and  so  well.' 

Could  arts  like  these  exist  without  producing  a 
considerable  degree  of  civilization  and  refinement? 
Or  rather,  do  they  not  presuppose  this,  as  essentially 
requisite  to  their  own  existence? 


74  ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

The  remains  of  art  which  still  exist;  the  immense 
piles  of  ruins,  and  the  numerous  canals  on  the  plains 
of  Babylon;  the  exquisite  specimens  of  architectural 
taste,  and  of  statuary  and  painting,  which  are  found 
within  the  boundaries  of  the  ancient  Persian  and  Me- 
dian empire,  particularly  at  Persepolis;  the  magnifi- 
cent temples,  collosal  statues  and  everlasting  pyramids 
of  ancient  Egypt,  so  massively  and  yet  so  nicely 
constructed,  that  the  most  skilful  engineers  of  the 
French  army  could  devise  no  way  in  w^hich  it  would 
be  possible  for  them  to  raise  such  enormous  masses 
of  rock,  or  fit  them  together  when  raised:  these,  and 
many  other  remains,  some  of  which  are  known  to 
be  at  least  as  ancient  as  the  time  of  Moses,  and 
which,  after  the  lapse  of  so  many  ages,  and  the  ruth- 
less attacks  of  so  many  barbarians,  and  the  despoil- 
ing hands  of  so  many  pilferers,  still  retain  enough  of 
their  ancient  magnificence  to  strike  with  astonish- 
ment and  admiration,  even  those  whose  eyes  have 
been  long  accustomed  to  all  that  Greek  and  Roman 
and  modern  art  could  achieve, — these  things,  I  say, 
a];e  sufficient  indications  that  the  ancients  were  not 
the  mere  children,  which  some  have  supposed  them. 
Since  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  four  immense 
cities,  each  containing  an  average  of  at  least  half  a  mil- 
lion of  inhabitants,  besides  innumerable  smaller  cities, 
villages,  and  caravansaries,  have  been  built  almost  en- 
tirely with  the  materials  found  among  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Babylon,  and  3^et  these  ruins  still  remain  un- 
exhausted. 'When  we  consider,'  says  Sir  Robert 
Ker  Porter  (Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  337,  338),  'that  so 
many  centuries  have  passed,  since  Babylon  became  a 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  Td- 

deserted  habitation,  and  that  it  yet  lay  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  populous  nations,  our  surprise  ought  to  be,  not 
that  we  find  so  little  of  its  remains,  but  that  we  see 
so  much.  From  her  fallen  towers  have  arisen,  not 
only  all  the  present  cities  in  her  vicinity,  but  others, 
which,  like  herself,  are  long  ago  gone  down  into  the 
dust.  Since  the  days  of  Alexander,  we  find  four 
capitals  at  least  built  out  of  her  remains:  Selucia  by 
the  Greeks,  Ctesiphon  by  the  Parthians,  Al  Maidan 
by  the  Persians,  Kufa  by  the  Caliphs;  with  towns, 
villages,  and  caravansaries  without  number.' 

'That  the  fragments  of  one  city  should  travel  so 
far,  to  build  or  repair  the  breaches  of  another,  on 
the  first  view  of  the  subject,  appeared  unlikely  to 
myself;  but  on  traversing  the  country  between  the 
approximating  shores  of  the  two  rivers,  and  observ- 
ing all  the  facilities  for  water-carriage  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  I  could  no  longer  be  incredulous  of 
what  had  been  told  me;  particularly  when  scarce  a 
day  passed  without  my  seeing  people  digging  the 
mounds  of  Babylon  for  bricks,  which  they  carried 
to  the  verge  of  the  Euphrates,  and  thence  conveyed 
in  boats  to  wherever  they  might  be  w^anted.' 

Besides  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  splendid  work,  I  would 
refer  the  reader,  who  wishes  for  confirmation  and 
more  than  confirmation  of  all  that  has  been  said,  to 
the  Memoirs  on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon  by  Claudius 
James  Rich,  British  Consul  at  Bagdat;  and  for 
Egypt,  to  Belzoni's  travels,  the  researches  of  the 
French  philosophers,  and  the  judicious  compilation, 
entitled  the  Modern  Traveler,  published  in  Londoa 
and  republished  in  Boston. 


76  ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

After  the  statement  of  these  facts,  which  no  one 
who  has  any  competent  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
will  pretend  to  controvert,  I  hope  my  readers  will 
not  be  incredulous,  if  some  of  the  discussions  on  which 
we  are  about  to  enter,  should  imply  a  state  of  ad- 
vancement in  civilization  among  the  ancients,  con- 
siderably beyond  that,  for  which  some  moderns  have 
been  accustomed  to  give  them  credit. 

II.    MOST    ANCIENT    MATERIALS    OF    WRITING. 

There  must  have  been  some  convenient  and  por- 
table material  of  writing  known  a  considerable  pe- 
riod before  the  most  ancient  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  written.  This  is  essential  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  plain  historical  style,  in  which  these 
books  are  composed;  for  such  a  style  cannot  be  form- 
ed without  considerable  practice,  and  practice  is  im- 
possible without  a  convenient  and  portable  material. 
Previous  to  the  discovery  of  such  a  material,  literary 
effort  is  confined  to  the  brief  genealogy,  the  tradi- 
tionary song,  and  the  moral  aphorism.  Stone  is  the 
first  material  mentioned,  on  which  letters  must  have 
been  engraved  (Exod.  xxiv.  12-18;  xviii;  Josh.  viii. 
32).  This  perhaps  might  have  been  the  first  material 
used;  but  it  is  obviously  too  unwieldy  and  inflexible 
for  books,  and  books  are  mentioned  as  having  been 
well  known  before  (Ex.  xvii.  14;  Job  xix.  23).  Stone 
could  be  used  only  for  short  inscriptions,  genealo- 
gies, and  statutes,  where  the  durability  and  perma- 
nency of  the  material  were  matters  of  great  impor- 
tance. The  most  important  Roman  laws,  for  this 
reason,  were  engraved  upon  brazen  plates.     So,  for 


ALPHABETie    WRITING,  77 

this  reason,  Moses  engraved  the  ten  commandments 
on  stone. 

Lead  occurs  very  early  as  a  material  of  writing, 
and  was  in  many  respects  better  than  stone  (Job 
xix.  24).  The  leaden  sheets  v^ere  written  upon  and 
then  fastened  to  stone.  Thus,  subsequently,  Pausa- 
nias  says,  he  saw  in  Boeotia,  the  works  of  Hesiod  en- 
graved upon  lead  (Pau.  ix.  31).  At  Babylon  square 
pieces  of  clay  were  worked  with  letters  and  then 
baked  into  tiles.  Pieces  of  wood  smoothed,  with 
a  flat  surface,  were  used  for  the  same  purpose 
(Ezek.  xxxvii.  16;  Luke  i.  63;  'writing  table,'  the 
passage  in  Luke  is  translated,  and  it  means  wood 
prepared  to  be  written  upon).  Herodotus  mentions 
the  skins  of  goats  and  sheep  roughly  dressed,  as 
being  in  use  among  the  lonians  (v.  58).  Pliny 
informs  us  that  papyrus  came  into  use  previous  to 
the  Trojan  war,  1184  before  Christ,  (Nat.  Hist,  xii; 
21-29).  Parchment  properly  prepared  was  not 
known  until  about  200  B.  C. 

We  know  that  the  Hebrews,  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
possessed  the  art  of  dressing  skins,  and  even  of  col- 
oring them,  (as  well  as  of  ornamental  working  in 
wood,  metal,  and  precious  stones:  Exod.  xxxi.  and 
xxxvi);  but  we  know  not  that  they  had  the  art  of 
making  parchment  for  purposes  of  writing.  .  We 
know  that  the  Egyptians  very  extensively  made  use 
of  cotton  cloth,  prepared  for  this  purpose.  Libros 
linteos  are  also  mentioned  by  Livy  as  having  been  used 
at  Rome.  The  bandages  and  envelopes  of  the 
Egyptian  mummies,  so  many  of  which  have  recently 
been  examined,   are    composed    of   coarse   cottoik 

7* 


78  ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

cloth,  and  many  of  them  are  entirely  covered  with 
writing. 

Moses  was  from  Egypt,  and  was  well  acquainted 
with  all  the  Egyptian  arts,  and  this  prepared  cloth 
would  furnish  him  with  a  material  portable,  cheap, 
endurable,  and  in  all  respects  convenient;  so  that 
in  his  time,  and  long  before,  there  would  have  been 
no  trouble  in  finding  materials  for  books.  Ink  is 
mentioned  by  Jeremiah,  xxxvi.  18.  The  pen  is  men- 
tioned as  a  graving  tool,  Jer.  xvii.  1.  The  pen  also 
was  sometimes  a  brushy  like  our  paint  brushes,  or  a 
reed  split  at  one  end,  such  as  is  now  used  among 
some  of  the  oriental  nations.  (Compare  Eichhorn's 
Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  vol.  iii.  p.  10; 
vol.  i.  p.  183,  184;  and  Jahn's  Biblical  Archaeology, 
translated  by  professor  Upham,  Sect.  87). 

III.    IMPORTAKCE    OF    ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

The  invention  of  alphabetic  writing,  so  far  as  the 
development  of  mind  is  concerned,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  that  has  ever  occurred.  Without  it, 
thought  could  not  be  preserved;  each  succeeding  age 
would  lose  nearly  all  the  benefit  of  the  effort  and  ex- 
perience of  the  preceding;  the  human  race  would 
remain  in  a  condition  of  perpetual  childhood,  and 
every  little  section  of  the  world  be  cut  off  from 
intellectual  communication  with  every  other  section. 
By  this  invention,  mind  is  connected  with  mind  to 
the  remotest  ages  and  most  distant  climes;  thoughts, 
inventions,  improvements  flow  into  each  other,  give 
risfe  to  new  ones,  and  become  the  common  property 
of  the  world. 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING*  7^ 

Useful  as  this  invention  is,  and  essential  as  it  is 
to  the  intellectual  growth  of  man,  and  familiar  as  we 
have  become  with  it,  it  is  yet  a  most  astonishing  one. 
Language  is  remote  from  thought,  and  writing  is 
equally  remote  from  language;  and  yet,  by  familiar- 
ity of  association,  writing  suggests  thought  as  readily 
and  as  completely  as  if  it  had  a  natural  and  intimate 
connection  with  it.  We  express  a  thought  by  an 
arbitrary  sound,  which  has  no  natural  connection 
with  it  whatever;  this  arbitrary  sound  again  is  re- 
presented to  the  eye  by  an  arbitrary  figure,  which 
has  no  more  natural  connection  with  the  sound  than 
the  sound,  has  with  the  thought;  and  yet  so  familiar 
have  our  minds  become  with  this  arbitrary,  circui- 
tous, and  complex  mode  of  representing  thought, 
and  so  necessary  is  it  to  us,  that  in  reading  we  are 
entirely  insensible  to  the  long  processes  of  associa- 
tion, abstraction,  and  induction,  which  are  going  on 
within.  The  mind  seems  to  take  the  thought  as 
directly  as  if  the  channel  of  communication  were 
necessarily  inherent  in  the  nature  of  the  subjects* 
That  both  the  words  of  speech  and  the  characters  of 
writing  are  in  themselves  entirely  arbitrary,  is  mani- 
fest from  the  fact,  that  an  endless  variety  of  diffe- 
rent sounds  and  different  signs  is  used  by  different 
nations,  with  equal  convenience  to  express  the  same 
thing.  The  origin  of  spoken  language,  and  of  its 
essential  diversities,  exclusive  of  dialectic  varieties^ 
seems  to  be  justly  referred  to  the  direct  interposi- 
tion of  the  Creator  (Compare  Gen.  ii.  19,  20  and  xi* 
1-9).  At  least,  we  may  ask,  what  theory  of  the 
origin  of  languages  and  its  great  diversities,  (such 


80 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 


for  example  as  that  which  exists  between  the  Chi- 
nese and  the  English),  more  rational  than  that  of  the 
bible,  has  ever  yet  been  proposed? 

IV.   ALL  ALPHABETS  FROM  ONE  SOURCE. 

In  examining  the  history  of  alphabetic  writing, 
the  first  thing  that  strikes  us  is,  that  the  alphabets  of 
all  cultivated  languages,  so  far  as  they  have  been 
investigated,  seem  to  have  been  derived  from  a  com- 
mon source,  and  the  invention  appears  to  have  been 
made  but  once.  Those  alphabets  which  at  first  ap- 
peared to  make  an  exception  to  the  rule,  on  closer 
examination  and  more  familiar  acquaintance,  are 
found  to  confirm  it.  In  illustration  of  this  fact,  com- 
pare the  names  and  the  ancient  arrangement  of  the 
letters  in  the  following  alphabets. 


Hebrew, 

Syrian. 

Greek. 

Arabic. 

A 

Aleph 

Olaph 

Alpha 

Eliph 

B 

Beth 

Beth 

Beta 

Be 

G 

Gimel 

Gomal 

Gamma 

Gim 

D 

Daleth 

Dolath 

Delta 

Dal 

* 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

K 

Kaph 

Kuph 

Kappa 

Koph 

L 

Lamed 

Lomad 

Lambda 

Lam 

M 

Mem 

Mim 

Mu 

Mim 

N 

Nun 

Nun 

Nu 

Nun. 

The  same  comparison  might  be  carried  through 
all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  with  a  like  result,  but 
the  above  will  answer  all  the  purpose  of  illustration- 
The  names  in  the  above  table  are  arranged  in  the 
order  of  antiquity,  the  Hebrew  being  the  most 
ancient,  and  the  Arabic  the  most  modern.. 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  81 

V.     ALPHABETIC    WRITING    OF    SHEMITISH    ORIGIN. 

The  original  source  of  alphabetic  writing  is  to  be 
found  among  the  descendants  of  Shem,  in  the  great 
Asiatic  valley  watered  by  the  Tigris  and  the  Eu- 
phrates (Gen.  X.  21-25). 

In  proof  of  this  we  observe,  that  the  names  of  the 
letters  are  Shemitish,  and  in  the  old  Shemitish  lan- 
guages they  are  the  names  of  the  things  which  the 
figures  of  the  letters  represented,  while  in  other 
languages  they  are  mere  technical  terms. 

VI.    PROCESS    OF    FORMING    THE    ORIGINAL    ALPHABET. 

The  process  of  forming  the  alphabet  seems  origin- 
ally to  have  been  this:  To  represent  a  sound,  the 
name  of  some  visible  object  was  taken,  the  first 
sound  in  which  was  the  sound  desired;  and  the  pic- 
ture of  that  object  was  the  letter  for  that  sound. 
For  example,  I  wish  to  represent  the  sound  D;  I  look 
around  for  some  object,  the  name  of  which  begins 
with  that  sound.  I  select  door^  the  name  of  which 
thus  becomes  the  name  of  the  sound  D,  and  the 
picture  of  which  becomes  the  letter  for  that  sound. 
This  is  the  way  in  which  the  letter  D  was  actually 
formed;  this  is  the  meaning  of  the  old  Shemitish 
word  daletli^  and  the  original  figure  to  represent  this 
sound  was  a  rude  picture  of  an  ancient  door. 

To  illustrate  this  point  more  fully,  the  annexed 
engraving  gives  the  form  of  several  letters  from  the 
most  ancient  alphabets  known. 


as 


ALPHABETIC     WRITING. 


n 

11. 

Hi 

IV. 

V. 

n 

VI. 

H 

VII. 

I 

^ 

^ 

1 

1 

T 

V 

I 

4 

z. 

t 

"? 

A 

L 

1 

«V 

T 

Y 

n 

A 

D 

5) 

9 

A 

^ 

i 

B 

\ 

<. 

T 

Z 

r 

X 

A 

n 

T 

(}^^ 

r 

>< 

>« 

A 

0 

n 

© 

'■A 

^ 

A 

«( 

I 

Y 

sv 

w 

V 

2t> 

X 

S 

ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  83 

Column  I.  is  the  old  Babylonian  alphabet,  found  on 
tiles  among  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  of  which  but  six 
letters  have  as  yet  been  ascertained.  This  is  proba- 
bly the  oldest  alphabet,  of  which  any  traces  remain. 

Column  II.  is  from  the  old  Phenician  alphabet,  found 
in.  inscriptions  upon  rocks  in  the  parts  of  western 
Asia  and  northern  Africa,  inhabited  by  the  Phenician 
merchants  of  remote  antiquity.  This  we  have  toler- 
ably complete. 

Column  III.  is  the  ancient  Hebrew,  preserved  on  the 
old  Jewish  coins,  particularly  those  which  were 
struck  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabean  princes.  The 
sacred  letter  of  the  Samaritans  is  essentially  the 
same  with  this. 

Column  IV.  is  the  old  Syrian  alphabet,  found  in 
inscriptions  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  Syrian  cities. 

Column  V.  is  the  Chaldee,  or  modern  Hebrew  letter; 
the  character  in  which  the  Chaldee  and  Hebrew  lan- 
guages are  now  written  and  printed. 

.  Column  VI.  is  the  ancient  Greek  letter,  consisting 
entirely  of  square  capitals;  as  all  ancient  alphabets 
consist  only  of  capitals,  the  small  letter  being  an 
invention  but  little  anterior  to  that  of  the  art  of 
printing. 

Column  VII.  is  the  Roman  letter,  so  far  as  it  differs 
from  the  Greek.  Where  no  letter  is  found  in  column 
vii.,  the  Roman  letter  is  precisely  like  the  Greek. 

An  examination  of  the  letters  represented  in  this 
engraving,  will  illustrate  and  confirm  the  remark  I 
have  made  respecting  the  original  process  of  forming 
the  alphabet.     The  old  Shemitish  name  of  the  first 


84  ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

letter  on  the  plate  is  Heth,  which  means  a  fence  or 
enclosure^  and  is  the  original  source  of  our  aspirate  ff. 
Trace  this  letter  through  the  first  line,  and  observe 
how  clearly,  in  all  its  changes  through  various  lan- 
guages, it  still  preserves  the  outlines  of  its  original 
form  and  the  evidences  of  its  origin.  In  the  Baby- 
lonian alphabet,  it  is  an  exact  enclosure  of  a  triangu- 
lar form;  in  the  Phenician,  an  enclosure  with  an 
opening  at  each  end;  in  the  old  Hebrew,  a  close 
enclosure;  in  the  Syrian  and  Chaldee,  an  enclosure 
open  at  one  end;  the  Greek  and  Roman  is  formed 
from  the  Syrian,  by  dropping  down  the  horizontal 
stroke  to  the  middle  of  the  two  perpendiculars. 

The  second  letter  is  Vauv  (the  original  of  our  V), 
a  name,  which  in  the  Shemitish  languages  means  a 
hook^  or  nail^  and  particularly  a  tenter-hook,  such  as  is 
driven  into  a  wall  or  post,  for  the  purpose  of  hang- 
ing things  upon  it.  Trace,  now,  the  different  figures 
of  this  letter  through  the  several  ancient  alphabets, 
and  you  will  find  them  all  derived  from  the  same 
source,  and  corresponding  in  their  outlines  to  the 
original  signification  of  the  name.  The  Babylonian 
Vauv  is  a  complete  hook;  the  Phenician,  a  tenter- 
hook; the  old  Hebrew,  a  nail  a  little  bent  at  the 
head;  the  Syrian  and  Chaldee,  tenter-hooks;  the 
Greek  and  Roman  plainly  derived  from  the  Pheni- 
cian, by  making  the  acute  angle  the  bottom  of  the 
letter,  instead  of  the  right-hand  side. 

In  regard  to  the  other  letters,  the  reader  can  easily 
make  the  comparison  for  himself;  and  I  need  only 
indicate  the  names  and  their  signification. 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  85 

Letter  3d  is  L,  name  Lamed,  signification  Ox-goad. 

4th  D,  Daleth,         Door. 

5th  B,  Beth,  House. 

6th  Z,  Zain,  Sword  or  weapon. 

7th  T,  Tauv,  Cross. 

8th  A,  Aleph,  Ox  or  horned  animal. 

9th  Th(hard),  Theth,  Serpent. 

10th  Y  or  J,  YodorJod,  Hand. 

11th  ShorS,  Shin  or  Sin,  Tooth. 

The  reader  will  observe,  that  the  letters  here  are 
not  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet:  that  is 
pointed  out  on  a  preceding  page,  where  the  names 
of  the  letters  are  given  (p.  80). 

Probably  no  one  of  the  alphabets  here  represented, 
extremely  ancient  as  they  are,  is  the  original  one; 
for  no  one  of  them,  as  is  easily  seen  by  the  engraving, 
gives  the  original  figure  of  every  letter;  but  this  dis- 
appears and  reappears  as  you  pass  from  one  to  the 
other.  Compare  particularly  the  letter  T,  Cross,  in 
the  Phenician,  old  Hebrew,  Syrian,  Chaldee,  Greek 
and  Roman;  and  S,  Tooth,  in  the  Phenician,  old  He- 
brew, Syrian  and  Chaldee. 

We  ought  not  to  be  surprised  to  find  some  of  the 
figures  rather  rude  and  imperfect  representations  of 
the  visible  objects  whose  names  they  bear;  for  their 
very  rudeness  is  one  of  the  indubitable  marks  of  their 
remote  antiquity;  and  it  is  the  gradual  and  long- 
continued  process  of  refinement  which,  in  many 
instances,  has  obliterated  almost  all  traces  of  the 
original  figure. 


86  ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 


VII.    HISTORICAL    TESTIMONY. 


Tradition  and  historical  testimony  confirm  the 
views  which  we  have  given,  namely,  that  alphabetic 
writing  was  originally  invented  in  the  East,  and  that 
all  alphabets  are  derived  from  a  common  source. 
The  Orientals  almost  universally  ascribed  the  inven- 
tion of  letters  and  sciences  to  Seth,  Thoth,  or  Theuth, 
whom  the  Europeans  denominated  Hermes  or  Mer- 
cury. Compare  Herbelot's  Bibliotheque  Orientale, 
art.  Scheith  (in  French);  and  Creuzer's  Symbolik  and 
Mythology,  vol.  i.  p.  321,  and  363  f  (in  German). 

The  Greeks  universally  ascribe  the  introduction  of 
alphabetic  writing  among  themselves,  to  Cadmus  the 
Phenician;  a  proper  name  which  is  nothing  more 
than  the  Greek  form  of  the  Shemitish  word  tDiP. 
(kedem),  and  means  an  eastern  man. 

But  we  have  also  historical  testimony,  which  is 
explicit,  and  direct  to  the  point,  that  alphabetic  writ- 
ing originated  in  the  great  Asiatic  valley  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

Diodorus  Siculus  expresses  the  opinion,  that  'the 
Syrians  are  the  inventers  of  letters,  and  the  Pheni- 
cians  learning  from  them,  communicated  this  knowl- 
edge to  the  Greeks.  These  are  they  who  sailed  into 
Europe  with  Cadmus,  and  on  this  account  the  Greeks 
call  the  letters  Phenician,  though  they  say,  that  the 
Phenicians  did  not  invent  them  at  the  first,  but  only 
changed  the  forms  of  the  letters;  and  the  most  of 
men  now  use  this  kind  of  writing'.     (Book  i.  c.  2). 

Pliny  also  observ^es,  'I  suppose  that  the  Assyrian 
letters  have  always  existed;  but  some  say  that  they 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  87 

were  invented  among  the  Egyptians  by  Mercury,  as 
Gellius;  and  others  among  the  Syrians.  Cadmus 
brought  them  into  Greece  from  Phenicia,  sixteen  in 
number;  the  Pelasgi  carried  them  into  Latium.' 
(Nat.  Hist.  vii.  56). 

The  earliest  account  of  alphabetic  writing  among 
profane  historians,  refers  it  to  Babylon.  Simplicius, 
a  Phrygian  philosopher  of  the  fifth  century  of  the  chris- 
tian era,  quoting  Porphyry,  states  that  Calisthenes, 
the  friend  of  Alexander,  .found  at  Babylon  on  tiles 
records  of  astronomical  observations  for  one  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  and  three  years,  that  is,  as  far  back 
as  2234  B.  C.  in  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  the  life  of 
Abraham.  This  statement  receives  some  confirma- 
tion from  modern  astronomical  calculations. 

In  the  bible,  books  are  first  mentioned  in  Job  (xix. 
23)  probably  as  early  as  1700  before  Christ;  and  in 
Exodus  (xvii.  14)  about  1490  before  Christ.  The 
first  indication  of  alphabetic  waiting  is  in  the  men- 
tion of  Judah's  signet  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18),  about  1730 
before  Christ.  These  are  alluded  to,  not  as  things 
new  and  strange,  but  as  objects  entirely  familiar  to 
the  people  of  that  age.  Writing  and  books  were 
well  known  to  the  Hebrew^s,  long  before  this  period; 
for  the  art  had  been  introduced  at  least  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Abraham;  and  he  was  from  the  country 
and  nation  in  which  the  art  originated  (Gen.  xi.  27, 
28.  XV.  7). 

All  the  descendants  of  Arphaxad  (Gen.  x.  24)  were 
called  Chaldeans;  for  Josephus  says,  'Arphaxad 
named  the  Arphaxadites,  who  are  now  called  Chal- 
deans,' (Antiq.  I.  6:   4).     To  the  same  purpose  we 


88'  ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

read  in  the  Apocryphal  book  of  Judith,  that  when 
the  general  of  the  Assyrian  king  demanded  who  the 
Jews  were,  that  dared  ofier  resistance  to  the  power 
of  his  master,  '  then  said  Achior,  the  captain  of  all 
the  sons  of  Ammon,  let  my  Lord  now  hear  a  word 
from  the  mouth  of  thy  servant,  and  I  will  declare 
unto  thee  the  truth  concerning  this  people,  which 
dwelleth  near  thee  and  inhabiteth  the  hill  countries: 
and  there  shall  no  lie  come  out  of  the  mouth  of  thy 
servant.  This  people  are  descended  of  the  Chal- 
deans: and  they  sojourned  heretofore  in  Mesopota- 
mia, because  they  would  not  follow  the  gods  of  their 
fathers,  which  were  in  the  land  of  Chaldea.  For 
they  left  the  way  of  their  ancestors,  and  worshipped 
the  God  of  heaven,  the  God  w^hom  they  knew,  &c. 
(Judith,  v).  The  name  Chaldean  (or  as  it  is  alw^ays 
in  the  Hebrew,  Chasdim),  which  afterwards  acquired 
so  extensive  an  application,  is  derived  from  Chesed 
(Gen.  xxii.  22),  the  son  of  Nahor,  Abraham's  brother. 

The  name  Chaldea  was  originally  applied  to  the 
delightful  and  healthful  region  south  of  the  Cardu- 
chian  mountains,  and  north  of  Mesopotamia  and 
Assyria  (Ezek.  i.  3);  but  the  name  was  afterward 
extended  to  the  w^iole  region  of  which  Babylon  was 
the  capital.  The  Chaldeans  were  universally  known 
as  the  heroes  and  sages  of  the  ancient  east;  and  in 
the  times  of  the  later  prophets,  the  term  Chaldean 
had  become  synonymous  with  that  of  sage  or  wise 
man.  (Hab.  i.  6-11.  Daniel,  i-vi.  Herodotus,  i. 
181-183). 

The  conclusion  from  the  preceding  investigation, 
is,  that  alphabetic  writing  originated  with  the  descend- 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  89 

ants  of  Shem,  and  among  the  progenitors  of  the 
Hebrew  nation;  that  the  art  was  known  and  exten- 
sively practised,  at  least  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Abraham,  and  that  the  first  historical  traces  of  its 
existence  are  found  among  the  Assyrians  and  Chal- 
deans. We  will  now  examine  some  of  the  opinions 
of  the  ancients,  which  ascribe  a  different  origin  to 
this  most  important  art. 

VII.    ALPHABETIC    WRITING    NOT    OF    PHENICIAN    ORIGIN. 

It  was  a  common  opinion  among  the  ancients,  that 
alphabetic  writing  was  invented  by  the  Phenicians. 
Thus  says  the  poet  Lucan: 

'Phenicians  first,  if  ancient  fame  be  true, 

The  sacred  mystery  of  letters  knew  ; 

They  first  by  sound  in  various  lines  designed, 

Expressed  the  meaning  of  the  thinking  mind ; 

The  power  of  words  by  figures  rude  conveyed, 

And  useful  science  everlasting  made. 

Then  Memphis,  ere  the  reedy  leaf  was  known, 

Engraved  her  precepts  and  her  arts  in  stone, 

While  animals  in  various  order  placed. 

The  learned  hieroglyphic  column  graced.' 

(Pharsalia,  III.  220  f.  Howe's  Translation). 

Pliny  also  says,  'the  nation  of  the  Phenicians  has 
the  greatest  glory  for  the  invention  of  letters,  and 
of  the  astronomical,  naval,  and  warlike  arts.'  (Nat. 
Hist.  V.  12). 

The  source  of  this  error  is  very  easily  detected. 

The  Phenicians  of  Canaan  bordered  on  the  Shemites, 

and  being  the  only  commercial  nation  of  antiquity, 

they  alone  diffused  among  other  nations  the  knowl- 

8* 


90  ALPHABETIC    WRITrNG. 

edge  of  the  art,  which  they  had  learned  from  their 
eastern  neighbors.  Herodotus  himself  seems  clearly 
to  recognize  this  as  the  fact,  in  the  following  passage 
of  his  history: 

'  The  Phenicians  who  came  with  Cadmus,  and  of 
whom  the  Gephyreans  were  a  part,  introduced 
during  their  residence  in  Greece  various  articles  of 
science,  and  among  other  things  letters,  with  which, 
as  I  conceive,  the  Greeks  were  before  unacquainted. 
These  were  at  first  such  as  the  Phenicians  themselves 
indiscriminately  use;  in  process  of  time,  however, 
they  were  changed  both  in  sound  and  form.  At  that 
time  the  Greeks  most  contiguous  to  this  people  were 
the  lonians,  who  learned  these  letters  of  the  Pheni- 
cians, and  with  some  trifling  variations,  received 
them  into  common  use.  As  the  Phenicians  first  made 
them  known  in  Greece,  they  called  them,  as  justice 
required,  Phenician  letters.'  (Book  v.  c.  58.  Beloe's 
Translation). 

The  Egyptians,  who  claimed  the  honor  of  the 
invention  for  themselves,  also  asserted,  that  'the 
Phenicians,  because  they  had  the  dominion  of  the 
sea,  carried  letters  into  Greece,  and  acquired  the 
glory  of  having  invented  that,  which  they  had  found 
already  made  to  their  hands.'  (Tacitus,  Annal.  xi. 
14). 

That  the  Phenicians  were  not  the  original  inven- 
ters  of  the  alphabet,  appears  evident  also  from  the 
fact,  that  the  names  of  the  letters  show  them  clearly 
to  be  of  Shemitish  origin;  while  the  Phenicians 
were  descended  from  Ham,  and  not  from  Shem, 
though  by  their  contiguity  to   the   Shemites,  their 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  91 

language  became  somewhat  similar.  (Gen.  x:  14- 
20).  Again,  the  Phenicians  were  a  commercial  and 
nautical  people;  but  none  of  the  names  of  the  letters 
are  derived  from  objects  peculiar  to  such  a  people, 
but  they  are  exclusively  of  agricultural  and  pastoral 
origin,  a  fact  which  exactly  corresponds  with  the 
Chaldee  source  to  which  we  have  ascribed  them. 

IX.    ALPHABETIC    WRITING    NOT    OF    EGYPTIAN    ORIGIN. 

Another  opinion  among  the  ancients  w^as,  that 
alphabetic  writing  originated  with  the  Egyptians^ 
So  Cicero  remarks  from  Plato,  that '  Mercury  is  said 
to  have  taught  the  Egyptians  laws  and  letters.' 
(De  Natura  Deorum,  iii.  22). 

Tacitus  also  says,  that '  the  Egyptians  first  repre- 
sented their  thoughts  by  the  figures  of  animals  [hiero- 
glyphics]; and  these  most  ancient  monuments  of 
human  memory  are  still  seen  impressed  on  stone; 
and  they  boast  that  they  themselves  w^ere  also  the 
inventers  of  letters.'     (Annal.  xi.  14). 

This  error  originated  in  the  fact,  that  the  Greeks, 
deriving  their  science  and  religion  from  Egypt,  were 
naturally  disposed  to  give  the  Egyptians  credit  for 
the  invention  of  letters,  which  they  claimed. 

But  the  Egyptians  were  also  the  decendants  of 
Ham  (Gen.  x.  1 3),  and  not  one  of  the  original  names 
of  the  letters  is  of  Egyptian  origin.  Moreover,  it  is 
a  fact  that  the  Egyptians  had  no  proper  alphabet  till 
after  the  time  of  Christ.  When  the  bible  was  trans- 
lated into  their  language  by  the  early  christian  mis- 
sionaries, it  was  done  by  means  of  an  alphabet  made 
from  the  Greek. 


92  ALPHABETIC    WRITING* 

X.    HIEROGLYPHIC    WRITING. 

It  is  true  that  the  Egyptians  had  very  early,  and 
probably  before  the  time  of  Abraham,  a  mode  of  writ- 
ing peculiar  to  themselves,  and  which  they  always 
retained  during  the  whole  period  of  their  national 
independence;  but  this  was  the  hieroglyphic,  and 
not  the  alphabetic.  The  difference  between  these 
two  modes  of  writing  is  so  great,  that  it  is  not  at  all 
probable  that  the  one  was  ever  derived  from  the 
other.  As  alphabetic  writing  originated  among  the 
children  of  Shem,  so  the  hieroglyphic  had  its  origin 
among  the  children  of  Ham.  The  more  striking 
differences  are  the  following: 

1.  In  alphabetic  writing,  sounds  are  represented 
directly,  and  ideas  only  indirectly;  but  in  hiero- 
glyphics it  is  the  reverse,  ideas  are  represented 
directly,  and  sounds  only  indirectly.  For  example, 
if  I  would  indicate  on  a  map  the  place  where  a  battle 
had  been  fought,  I  might  do  it  alphabetically  by  writ- 
ing the  word  battle;  and  these  letters  would  repre- 
sent directly  only  the  sounds  in  the  word  battle,  and 
the  idea  only  indirectly,  as  it  has  been  associated 
with  those  sounds.  But  were  I  to  indicate  the  same 
thing  hieroglyphically,  I  might  do  it  by  placing  the 
figure  of  two  swords  crossing  each  other,  and  these 
would  represent  the  idea  directly  and  the  sounds 
only  indirectly,  as  they  happen  to  be  associated 
with  that  idea.  Hence  a  hieroglyphic  may  convey 
the  same  idea  to  persons  who  speak  different  lan- 
guages, but  a  knowledge  of  the  language  is  neces- 
sary to  the  reception  of  an  idea  from  an  alphabetic 
word. 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  93 

2.  When  hieroglyphics  represent  sounds,  there  is  an 
endless  variety  of  characters  for  the  same  sound; 
and  the  figures  chosen  to  represent  the  sound  are 
not  arbitrary;  but  in  alphabetic  writing  the  figures 
are  abitrary,  and  each  sound  has  its  appropriate 
character. 

3.    Hieroglyphics    represent    full   syllables,   but 
alphabets  only  the  elements  of  syllables. 

These  differences  will  be  made  obvious  by  a  brief 
explanation  of  the  mode  of  hieroglyphic  writing. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  hieroglyphics,  namely, 
the  figurative,  the  symbolic,  and  the  phonetic. 

We  will  illustrate  these  different  kinds  of  hiero- 
glyphics by  their  application  to  the  name  of  the 
Egyptian  god  Osiris.  To  express  the  name  of  this 
deity  by  a  figurative  hieroglyphic,  a  full  picture  of 
the  god  must  be  drawn.  To  represent  the  same  by 
a  symbolic  hieroglyphic,  a  picture  must  be  made  of 
the  tiara  and  wand,  the  symbols  of  the  god,  with 
which  he  is  always  represented.  To  express  the 
same  by  phonetic  hieroglyphics,  a  series  of  pictures 
must  be  made,  of  visible  objects,  the  first  sounds  in 
whose  names  shall  be  the  successive  sounds  in  the 
word  Osir,  the  Egyptian  name  of  which  Osiris  is  the 
Greek  form,  or,  as  written  in  the  oriental  manner 
without  the  intermediate  vowel,  Osr,  The  first 
sound  is  represented  by  the  picture  of  a  reed,  the 
Egyptian  name  of  which  is  oke,  the  second  by  the 
picture  of  a  child,  in  Egyptian  si,  the  third  by  the 
picture  of  a  mouth,  in  Egyptian  ro,  thus: 
O  =  oke  =  reed 
S  =  si  =  child 
R  =  ro  =  mouth. 


94  ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

Different  phonetic  characters  are  used  to  express 
the  same  sound,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
object  represented.  Thus  the  letter  L  can  be  repre- 
sented by  the  picture  of  a  lion,  the  Egyptian  name 
of  which  is  laboi;  and  in  spelling  the  names  of  sov- 
ereigns, as  Alexander,  Cleopatra,  Ptolemy,  &:c.,  this 
sound  is  always  represented  by  a  picture  of  this  king 
of  beasts.  The  same  letter,  however,  may  also  be 
represented  by  a  picture  of  the  human  arm,  the 
name  of  which  in  Egyptian  begins  with  this  sound; 
and  in  spelling  the  name  of  a  common  man,  in  which 
the  letter  L  occurs,  the  arm  is  the  figure  used. 

We  may  illustrate  this  mode  of  writing  by  applying 
it  to  a  modern  name,  for  example  that  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  Taking  only  the  surname,  and  omitting  the 
vowel  and  one  of  the  double  consonants,  according 
to  the  oriental  custom,  we  have  the  letters  S  C  T 
to  be  represented.  To  represent  these  letters  in  a 
manner  appropriate  to  the  character  of  Sir  Walter 
as  a  knight  and  a  scholar,  we  might  make  the  pic- 
tures of  a  Sword,  a  Candle,  and  a  Table ;  if  we  would 
do  it  in  a  manner  complimentary  to  him  as  a  poet 
and  novelist  of  feudal  scenes,  a  Scroll,  a  Cavern,  and 
a  Tower;  if  in  a  vituperative  and  contemptuous 
manner,  a  Sink,  a  Cock,  and  a  Turkey. 

Such  is  the  nature  of  hieroglyphic  writing,  and 
thus  widely  does  it  differ  from  alphabetic. 

XI.  TESTIMONY  OF  THE  CHURCH  FATHERS. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  notice  what  is  said  by  the 
church  fathers  on  this  subject. 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  95 

Clemens  Alexandrinus  observes,  that  'it  is  said 
that  the  Phenicians  and  Syrians  first  invented  let- 
ters.'    Strom.  I.  132.  v.  28. 

Eusebius,  '  The  Syrians  are  they  who  first  invent- 
ed letters.'     Praep.  Evang.  x.  5. 

Theophilus  of  Antioch,  'Some  say  that  letters 
were  invented  by  the  Chaldeans,  some  by  the 
Egyptians,  others  by  the  Phenicians.'  Autoly.  iii.  in 
fine. 

Thus  the  results  to  which  we  have  come,  are  not 
contradicted,  but  rather  confirmed,  by  the  testimony 
of  the  church  fathers. 

XII.    SUMMARY    OF    RESULTS. 

As  results  of  the  preceding  investigation,  we  draw 
the  following  conclusions  in  reference  to  the  origin 
of  alphabetic  writing. 

1.  The  names  of  the  simple  sounds  were  first 
derived  from  the  names  of  visible  objects  containing 
those  sounds. 

2.  Letters  were  originally  rude  pictures  of  those 
objects. 

3.  All  the  alphabets,  so  far  as  known,  were  deriv- 
ed from  a  common  source. 

4.  This  source  was  with  the  descendants  of  Shem, 
and  among  the  progenitors  of  the  Hebrew  nation. 

5.  The  invention  was  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Abraham,  and  probably  much  earlier. 

6.  The  original  alphabet  is  not  now  in  existence. 

7.  The  form  of  the  letters  have  been  changed  by 
a  gradual  process  of  refinement. 


9Q  ALPHABETIC    WRITING. 

XIII.      CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 

From  the  preceding  historical  investigation,  it  is 
evident  that  the  objection  against  the  antiquity  of 
the  early  parts  of  the  bible,  and  its  general  historical 
correctness,  derived  from  the  supposed  rude  condi- 
tion of  the  arts  among  the  ancients,  and  their  v^^ant 
of  an  alphabet,  and  of  suitable  materials  for  w^riting, 
is  altogether  futile,  and  owes  its  whole  influence  to 
an  ignorance  of  antiquity.  And  here  I  would  advise 
every  one  who  wishes  to  bring  a  historical  objection 
against  the  bible,  for  his  own  credit's  sake,  to  make 
sure  of  it  before  he  uses  it;  for  every  objection  of 
this  kind  which  has  ever  been  made,  has,  on  investi- 
gation, been  found,  thus  far,  to  be  the  result  of  igno- 
rance, and  not  of  learning,  of  superficial  assumption, 
and  not  of  mature  examination. 

Let  one  example  give  the  character  of  all  the 
rest. 

When  the  French  philosophers  visited  Egypt,  in 
the  expedition  under  Napoleon,  they  found  a  most 
magnificent  Egyptian  temple  at  Denderah,  whose 
walls  were  covered  with  hieroglyphic  inscriptions, 
which  they  were  then  unable  to  read.  Among  other 
curiosities,  they  noticed  what  they  supposed  to  be  a 
representation  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac;  and  insti- 
tuting a  calculation  founded  on  the  astronomical  fact 
of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  they  inferred 
and  thought  they  proved,  that  on  the  supposition 
that  the  solstice  represented,  were  the  winter  sol- 
stice, the  temple  must  have  been  built  fifteen  thou- 
sand years  before,  that  is,  nine  thousand  before  the 
Mosaic  account   of  the   creation ;  or   on   the   more 


ALPHABETIC    WRITING.  97 

moderate  supposition  that  it  was  the  summer  solstice, 
then  the  temple  was  built  three  thousand  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eight  years  before  the  French  expe- 
dition, about  one  hundred  years  before  the  Mosaic 
account  of  the  deluge;  and  in  either  case,  suspicion 
would  be  brought  upon  the  truth  of  the  bible.  So 
high  an  antiquity  was  distasteful  to  the  most  learned 
men  of  Europe,  and  from  considerations  drawn  from 
astronomical  facts  and  the  progress  of  the  arts, 
Visconti,  the  celebrated  antiquarian,  was  inclined 
to  assign  to  it  a  much  later  origin,  in  which  he  was 
sustained  by  the  observations  of  Belzoni  the  trav- 
eler. After  a  warm  and  protracted  controversy, 
those  best  acquainted  with  the  subject,  settled  down 
in  the  conviction  that  the  weight  of  testimony  decid- 
ed that  the  temple  must  have  been  built  about  the 
time  of  the  commencement  of  the  christian  era;  and 
at  length  an  inscription  was  discovered  above  the  en- 
trance to  the  first  apartment  of  the  temple,  which, 
when  decyphered,  was  found  to  state  that  the  temple 
was  built  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  province,  while 
Publius  Avillius  Flaccus  was  prefect  of  Egypt,  which 
is  known  to  have  been  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  35; 
and  of  course  all  the  speculations  of  learned  infidelity 
about  the  famous  zodiac  of  Denderah,  which  so  lono- 
agitated  the  literary  circles  of  Europe,  have  now 
fallen  to  the  ground.  (See  Modern  Traveler,  Egypt, 
vol.  ii.  p.  61-74,  London  edition). 

There  are  many  devices  in  a  man's  hearty  neverthe- 
less^ the  counsel  of  the  Lord,  that  shall  stand,  (Prov. 
xix.  21). 

9 


98  ALPPIABETIC    WRITING. 

Note. — As  authorities  for  the  principal  facts  on  which  the 
above  reasonings  are  founded,  I  refer  the  reader  to  the  fol- 
lowing works,  in  addition  to  those  already  quoted. 

Walton's  Prolegomena  to  the  Polyglott  Bible. 
Pfeiffer's  Opera  Philologica. 
Goguet's  Origin  of  Laws,  Arts,  and  {Sciences. 
Eichhorn's  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  (in  German). 
Geseniue's  History  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  (do.) 

Kopp's  Pictures  and  Writings  of  Antiquity,  (^^o*) 

Ewald's  Hebrew  Grammar,  (do.) 

Hoffman's  Syrian  Grammar. 
Spineto  on  Hieroglyphics. 

Greppo  on  Hieroglyphics,  translated  by  I.  .Stuart, 
.lahn's  Biblical  Archaeology,  translated  by  professor  IJpham. 
Do.  Introduction  to  the  6ld  Testament,  translated  by  pro- 
fessor Turner. 


CHAPTER    SIXTH. 


AUTHENTICITY    OF    THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 


I.    ORIGIN    OF    THE    GOSPELS. 


Having  thus  established  the  authenticity  of  the 
five  books  of  Moses,  we  now  enter  on  a  similar  pro- 
cess of  investigation  in  reference  to  the  four  gos- 
pels. I  take  up  the  gospels  next  to  the  Pentateuch, 
because,  if  the  first  five  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  first  four  of  the  New  be  proved  authentic, 
the  process  of  proof  in  respect  to  almost  all  the 
others  may  be  made  very  brief  and  simple. 

The  four  gospels  which  we  have,  and  these  only, 
have  always  been  acknowledged  and  quoted  by 
Christians  and  heretics,  Jews  and  pagans,  as  the 
authoritative  books  of  the  christian  church.  Other 
gospels  have  existed,  and  heretics  have  claimed  for 
them  equal  or  superior  authority,  to  those  which  we 
regard  as  authentic;  but  it  has  never  been  pretended 
that  the  christian  church  has  acknowledged  any 
other  gospels  as  canonical. 

Almost  uniformly  they  have  been  arranged  in  the 
same  order  in  which  we  now  have  them.  The  most 
remarkable  exceptions  are  the  famous  Beza  manu- 
script preserved  in  the  library  of  the  university  at 


100  THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

Cambridge  in  England,  and  the  old  Gothic  transla- 
tion by  Ulphilas;  in  both  which  the  gospel  of  John 
is  placed  immediately  after  that  of  Matthew.  The 
order  in  which  they  are  usually  arranged,  is  most 
probably  the  order  of  time  in  which  they  were 
written. 

The  origin  of  the  gospels,  according  to  the  best 
circumstantial  evidence  that  we  can  obtain,  seems 
to  have  been  this  :  The  apostles  preached  Christy 
that  is,  they  told  their  hearers  who  Christ  was,  what 
he  had  done,  and  taught,  and  suffered  5  and  explained 
the  connection  between  the  life  and  death  of  Jesus 
and  the  religious  w^elfare  of  mankind.  As  was  cus- 
tomary in  ancient  times,  when  books  were  rare  and 
sold  at  an  exorbitant  price,  many  of  their  hearers 
took  notes  of  their  discourses,  and  sent  copies  of 
them  to  their  friends.  These  notes,  necessarily  im- 
perfect, without  authority,  and  sometimes  perhaps 
contradictory,  were  w^idely  circulated.  To  prevent 
confusion  and  mistake,  the  evangelists  were  divinely 
directed  to  write  and  publish  authentic  narratives, 
for  the  instruction  of  their  contemporaries  and 
posterity. 

Luke  refers  to  these  prior  accounts,  which  had 
been  written  and  circulated,  in  chapter  i.  v.  1,  of  his 
gospel:  Forasmuch  as  many  have  taken  in  hand  to 
set  forth  in  order,  &:c.  'Many'  cannot  refer  to  Mat- 
thew and  Mark,  who  had  written  before  him;  for 
two  could  hardly  be  styled  'many;'  and  in  verse  4, 
Luke  says  he  wrote,  that  the  'certainty,'  respect- 
isg  the  Saviour,  might  be  known.  Now,  if  Mat- 
thew and  Mark  had  been  referred  to  in  the  word 


THE    FOrXR    GOSPELS.  tOI 

^many,'  there  would  have  been  no  need  of  writing 
another  account,  as  they  were  credible  and  inspired 
writers  as  well  as  Luke. 

II.    ORIGINAL    MODE    OF    PUBLICATION. 

We  have  information,  respecting  the  original  mode 
of  publishing  the  New  Testament,  much  more  cer- 
tain than  we  have  in  regard  to  the  Old.  In  the  age 
of  the  New  Testament  writers,  the  most  common 
and  convenient  material  of  writing  was  papyrus — a 
sort  of  paper  formed  of  the  inner  bark  of  a  reed 
which  abounds  in  Egypt,  and  flourishes  also  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Of  this  there 
were  three  kinds,  the  sacred,  the  common,  and  the 
epistolary.  The  first  was  very  expensive,  and  its 
use  limited  principally  to  the  pagan  priesthood  in 
Egypt.  The  epistolary  was  thin  and  perishable, 
but  the  common  papyrus  was  more  firm  and  durable, 
and  this  probably  was  the  kind  used  by  the  writers 
of  the  New  Testament.  Paul  in  one  passage  speaks 
of  parchment,  and  in  a  manner  which  indicates  that 
he  set  a  high  value  upon  it  (2  Tim.  iv.  1 3). 

Authors,  at  that  period,  seldom  committed  their 
own  compositions  to  writing,  and  never  for  the  use 
of  the  public.  The  preparation  of  manuscripts  was 
then  a  trade,  as  much  as  printing  and  bookbinding 
are  now.  Paul  usually  did  not  write  even  his  own 
epistles  (Rom.  xvi.  22;  Gal.  vi.  11);  but  to  prevent 
forgery  he  wrote  his  own  name  with  the  concluding- 
salutation  (1  Cor.  xvi.  21;  2  Thess,  iii.  17;  Col.  iv., 
18).  He  urges  it  as  a  strong  proof  of  his  tender  and 

deep  interest  in  tne  Galatians,  that  he  had  writteiL 
9* 


102  THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

to  them  so  large  an  epistle  with  his  own  hand, 
though  the  epistle  itself  is  much  shorter  than  that 
to  the  Romans,  which  was  written  by  Tertius; 
and  to  the  Thessalonians  he  writes,  'the  salutation 
of  Paul  with  mine  own  hand,  which  is  the  token 
in  every  epistle:  so  I  write.' 

The  author  dictated  to  one  whose  business  it  was 
to  write  rapidly,  and  who  wa&  denominated  by  the 
Greeks  "^^x^yp^-^^i  (tachugraphos)  swift  writer^  and  by 
the  Latins  notarius  or  amanuensis^  This  was  copied 
in  a  fair  character  by  the  ^>.».«yp*?ej  (kalligraphos) 
fine  writer^  called  also  B'PA..cyp«?.of  {bihliographos)^  and 
by  the  Latins  librarius.  The  manuscript  was  then 
submitted  to  one  whose  business  it  was  to  see 
whether  the  whole  was  accurately  written,  and  to 
correct  any  errors  which  might  have  occurred. 

The  work  thus  prepared  was  dedicated  to  some 
patron  of  learning  or  of  the  author,  as  Josephus 
directed  his  writings  to  Epaphroditus,  and  Luke  his 
to  Theophilus;  or  to  some  association,  as  the  epistles 
of  Paul  were  generally  directed  to  a  church;  or  to 
some  friend,  as  Paul  wrote  to  Timothy,  to  Titus, 
and  to  Philemon;  and  through  these  channels  they 
w^ere  made  known  to  the  public  (Compare  Hug's 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.  p.  106  ff. 
in  German). 

III.    CANONICAL    AUTHORITY. 

Those  books  and  those  only  were  regarded  by 
the  primitive  christians  as  of  canonical  authority, 
which  were  written  by  apostles,  or  by  the  compan- 
ions of  the  apostles  under  apostolic  superintendence. 


THE    FOUR    GOSPELS.  1Q3 

The  question  in  regard  to  the  canonical  authority  of 
any  book,  therefore,  was  a  question  of  simple  fact,  in 
respect  to  which  the  churches  at  that  time  had  every 
opportunity  of  forming  a  correct  judgment.  Most 
of  the  churches  were  personally  acquainted  with 
several  of  the  apostles;  and  everyone  of  the  writers 
of  the  New  Testament  was  personally  known  to 
many  of  the  churches. 

The  churches  from  which  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  proceeded,  were  situated  around  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  from  Egypt,  through 
Palestine,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  to  Italy;  and 
through  these  countries,  in  consequence  of  the  ex- 
tensive military  operations  of  the  Roman  empire,  and 
the  roads  established  for  the  convenience  of  the  sol- 
diery, and  the  glory  of  Rome  and  the  preservation  of 
her  power,  communication  was  then  easy  and  fre- 
quent. These  churches  were  engaged  in  a  great 
and  common  cause,  in  the  prosecution  of  which 
they  were  obliged  to  encounter  obloquy  and  perse- 
cution of  the  severest  kind;  and  naturally  they  be- 
came strongly  attached  to  each  other,  and  the  more 
intimately  connected  the  more  they  were  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  world.  Thus  we  find  them 
relieving  each  other's  necessities  by  charitable  con- 
tributions (Acts  xi.  29;  1  Cor.  xvi.  1-3;  2  Cor.  viii. 
1;  Gal.  ii.  10).  Ministers  and  church  members 
traveling,  were  recommended  by  one  church  to 
another:  (Acts  xviii.  27;  Rom.  xvi.  1,  2;  2  Cor.  iii.  1; 
Col.  iv.  10).  Churches  sent  friendly  salutations  to 
one  another  (2  Cor.  xiii»  1 ;  Phil.  iv.  22).     Apostolie. 


104  THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

writings  were  sent  from  one  church  to  another  (CoL. 
iv.  16). 

The  churches  so  intimately  connected,  so  fre- 
quently visited  by  different  apostles,  and  teachers, 
and  church  members,  and  continually  sending  their 
sacred  writings  from  one  to  another,  could  not  be 
deceived  as  to  what  were  apostolic  books,  and  what 
not.  It  would  be  perfectly  easy  to  ascertain,  in 
respect  to  any  production,  whether  an  apostle  com- 
posed it  or  superintended  its  composition.  If  this 
were  the  case,  the  book  was  received  as  of  canoni- 
cal authority;  if  not,  its  claims  to  such  authority 
were  rejected. 

It  would  have  been  impossible  to  impose  upon 
these  churches  spurious  books,  as  the  writings  of  the 
apostles  or  apostolic  men,  during  their  lifetime,  or  the 
lifetime  of  the  members  of  the  churches  who  had 
been  acquainted  with  them.  Such  deception,  every 
one  knows,  would  be  impossible  now.  No  one  could 
write  a  letter  to  the  churches  of  the  United  States 
or  Great  Britain,  or  any  of  the  countries  of  Europe, 
and  affix  to  it  the  name  of  any  well  known  living 
preacher,  as  Dr.  Chalmers,  or  of  one  recently  de- 
ceased, as  Robert  Hall,  w^ithout  exposing  himself  to 
immediate  detection.  Deception  would  have  been 
equally  impossible  then;  for  communication  was  then 
equally  easy  and  frequent  between  the  several  places 
where  churches  were  situated,  and  the  connection 
between  the  churches  was  still  more  intimate  than 
it  is  now. 

The  canonical  books  were  kept  in  a  sacred  deposi- 
tory in  the  churches,  as  the  manuscript  rolls  of  the 


THE   FOUR    GOSPELS.  105 

Old  Testament  are  still  kept  by  the  Jews  in  their 
synagogues;  and  they  were  read  in  course  every 
Lord's  day  as  a  part  of  the  regular  religious  service. 
Books  written  by  those  who  were  not  apostles  or 
apostolic  men,  as  Clemens  Romanus,  Ignatius,  Poly- 
carp,  and  others,  were  also  occasionally  read  in  pub- 
lic on  the  Lord's  day,  for  the  instruction  of  the  con- 
gregation; as  ministers  now  sometimes  read  occa- 
sional communications  from  the  pulpit.  But  the 
reading  of  these  books  did  not  make  a  part  of  the 
regular  religious  service,  they  were  not  considered 
authoritative,  nor  were  they  allowed  to  be  kept  in 
the  sacred  receptacle. 

The  internal  and  circumstantial  evidence  confirms 
the  judgment  of  the  ancient  churches  respecting  the 
canonical  authority  of  these  books. 

1.  The  contents  of  the  books  agree  in  every  re- 
spect with  what  we  know  from  other  sources  con- 
cerning the  history  of  those  times;  and  nothing  can 
be  detected  in  them  inconsistent  with  their  claims 
to  authenticity.  They  exhibit  no  marks  of  a  later 
composition;  and  the  characteristic  peculiarities  of 
style  by  which  the  several  books  are  distinguished 
from  each  other,  give  evidence  of  their  genuineness. 

2.  The  dialect  in  which  these  books  are  written, 
is  a  convincing  proof  of  their  genuineness.  They 
are  written  in  a  Hebraistic  Greek,  which  was  used 
only  by  Jews  of  the  first  century,  and  went  en- 
tirely into  disuse  among  all  christian  writers  before 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  These  books,  then, 
if  they  are  forgeries,  must  have  been  forged  during 
the  lives  of  the  men  to  whom  they  are  ascribed,  or 


106  THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

immediately  after  their  death;  and  it  is  utterly- 
incredible  that  such  forgeries  should  ever  have  gain- 
ed general  credit. 

But  v^e  have  abundant  direct  testimony  to  the 
genuineness  and  consequent  canonical  authority  of 
these  books. 

1.  These  books  are  constantly  quoted  by  christian, 
heretical,  and  pagan  writers,  from  the  first  century 
downv^^ard.  These  quotations  are  drav^^n  out  at 
length  by  Dr.  Lardner,  in  his  Credibility  of  the  Gos- 
pel History;  and  a  clear  and  concise  view  of  them 
is  given  by  Dr.  Paley  in  his  Evidences  of  Christianity 
(ch.  ix.  sect.  1),  to  which  I  refer  the  reader. 

2.  Early  in  the  second  century,  Tatian,  an  Assy- 
rian christian,  a  disciple  of  Justin  Martyr,  composed 
a  harmony  of  the  four  gospels  which  we  now  have. 

3.  Early  in  the  third  century,  catalogues  of  the 
sacred  writings  of  the  New  Testament  were  made 
out;  the  oldest  of  which  now  extant  is  ascribed  to 
Caius,  a  presbyter  at  Rome,  and  contains  the  four 
gospels  as  we  now  have  them. 

During  the  same  century,  lived  Origen  of  Alex- 
andria, the  most  learned,  zealous,  and  indefatigable 
of  all  the  fathers,  who  gives  a  catalogue  of  the  writ- 
ings of  the  New  Testament,  among  which  are 
the  four  gospels.  He  is  allegorizing,  according  to 
his  manner,  on  the  account  of  the  falling  down  of 
the  walls  of  Jericho,  at  the  blowing  of  the  trumpet, 
and  applying  the  allegory,  he  says:  *The  first  who 
blew  the  trumpet,  was  Matthew,  then  Mark,  Luke, 
and  John,  among  the  Evangelists.  Peter  did  the 
same  in  two  epistles,  then  James  and  Jude.     John 


THE    FOUR    GOSPELS.  107 

set  up  again  the  trumpet  call,  by  his  epistles  and  the 
Revelation,  and  Luke  in  Acts.  But  last  came  Paul, 
and  battered  down  the  whole  with  the  fourteen  blasts 
of  his  epistles.  A  little  after,  Eusebius,  the  histo- 
rian, gives  the  same  account  (Eccl.  Hist.  iii.  25). 

If  we  judge  of  these  books  as  we  would  of  others, 
or  even  if  we  add  to  their  evidence  a  demand  of 
more,  corresponding  to  their  surpassing  interest,  can 
there  be  a  doubt  of  their  genuineness?  Dr.  Paley 
has  pursued  this  argument  with  great  skill  and  con- 
clusiveness in  his  Evidences  (chap,  ix);  and  as  this 
is  a  book  so  common,  and  so  easily  accessible,  it  is 
not  necessary  here  to  go  into  that  minuteness  of  his- 
torical investigation,  by  which  the  genuineness  of 
the  Pentateuch  has  been  established. 

IV.    CREDIBILITY    OF    THE    GOSPELS. 

I  do  not  here  touch  the  question  of  the  inspira- 
tion or  divine  authority  of  the  gospels;  but  simply 
the  credibility  of  the  writers  as  men — as  men  capa- 
ble and  honest,  or  incapable  and  dishonest.  Their 
claims  to  inspiration  will  be  considered  in  another 
place.     As  evidence  of  their  credibility  we  observe, 

1.  They  were  well  qualified  to  give  testimony  re- 
specting all  the  facts  which  they  relate ;  for  three  of 
them,  Matthew,  Mark,  and  John,  were  eyewitnesses 
of  the  transactions  which  they  record,  and  Luke 
made  himself  acquainted  with  the  facts  by  a  diligent 
investigation  of  the  whole  subject.  Their  manner 
of  writing,  and  all  that  we  know  respecting  them, 
proves  that  they  were  men  of  capacity  and  discern- 
ment sufficient  to  make  them  competent  judges  of 


108  THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

( 

the  nature   of  all   the   circumstances    which    they 
relate. 

2.  They  give  every  proof  of  the  most  perfect 
simplicity  and  honesty.  They  impartially  narrate 
their  own  faults,  and  the  faults  of  their  brethren; 
when,  persecuted  and  defamed  as  they  were,  it  would 
be  very  natural  for  men  in  their  situation  to  endeavor 
to  palliate  each  other's  failings.  They  expose  all 
their  weaknesses;  when,  if  they  had  been  impostors, 
it  would  have  been  greatly  for  their  interest  to  have 
concealed  them.  They  record  with  singular  fidelity 
the  severe  rebukes  which  they  received  from  their 
master  for  their  timidity,  forgetfulness,  thoughtless- 
ness and  unbelief  (Compare  Matt.  xxvi.  69;  Mark  vi. 
49-52;  viii.  14-21;  Luke  xxiv.  25,  and  many  other  pas- 
sages). What  stronger  proofs  of  honesty  is  it  possi- 
ble to  require? 

3.  They  changed  their  whole  mode  of  life  in  con- 
sequence of  their  belief  of  the  facts  which  they 
stated,  and  endured  all  manner  of  suffering  in  attes- 
tation of  their  truth.  They  themselves  certainly 
believed  that  those  things  of  which  they  testified, 
had  actually  occurred;  and  these  facts  were  of  such 
a  nature,  and  such  were  the  circumstances  of  the 
case,  that  the  witnesses  could  not  have  believed 
them,  unless  they  had  actually  taken  place. 

4.  If  their  statements  had  not  been  true,  the  false- 
hood could  have  been  easily  detected; — for  they 
were  continually  surrounded  by  bitter  enemies  who 
were  ceaselessly  watchful  to  seize  upon  every  ad- 
vantage to  hinder  their  progress.  The  Jews  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  were  continually  coming  to  Judea, 


M 


THE    FOUR    GOSPELS.  109 

with  full  opportunity  to  learn  every  thing  that 
occurred  there,  and  to  report  it  when  they  returned 
to  their  homes.  But  the  principal  facts  of  the  gos- 
pel history,  instead  of  being  denied,  were  admitted 
by  its  enemies;  and  Judas  himself,  who  had  been 
intimate  with  the  disciples,  enjoyed  their  confidence, 
and  partaken  in  all  their  counsels,  and  who  had 
every  inducement  to  excuse  his  own  baseness  by 
alleging  crime  against  him  whom  he  had  betrayed, 
offered  no  such  vindication  of  himself,  but  acknowl- 
edged that  he  had  sinned  and  betrayed  the  innocent, 
and  gave  proof  of  the  reality  of  his  remorse  and  the 
depth  of  his  wretchedness  by  violently  destroying 
his  own  life.  What  stronger  testimony  can  we  have 
to  the  innocency  of  Jesus  and  the  integrity  of  the 
gospel  history? 

5.  It  is  impossible  that  the  character  of  Jesus 
should  be  a  fiction,  invented  by  such  men  as  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament.  Their  education, 
character,  circumstances,  every  thing  precludes  the 
idea  of  their  possessing  the  ability  or  the  inclination 
to  conceive  and  delineate  such  a  character,  unless 
they  had  actually  seen  it  exhibited  before  their  eyes. 
Where  in  that  corrupt  age,  where  in  all  the  history 
of  the  world,  could  they  have  found  a  model  on  which 
to  form  so  grand,  so  perfect  an  idea?  And  if  a  model, 
or  even  the  nucleus  of  such  a  character,  had  existed, 
how  were  poor,  unlettered  publicans  and  fishermen 
to  learn  the  skill  to  fashion  and  exhibit  it  with  such 
beauty  and  effect? 

A  character  possessing  every  virtue,  without  any 
^of  the  corresponding  failings,  towards  which,  in  im- 
10 


110  THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

perfect  human  nature,  each  virtue  leans — courage 
without  rashness,  humility  without  meanness,  dig- 
nity without  arrogance,  perseverence  without  obsti- 
nacy, affection  without  weakness — always  acting 
in  exact  consistency,  and  never  ruffled  by  anger  or 
depressed  by  despair,  in  all  the  severe  and  aggravat- 
ing trials  through  which  he  passed.  How  could  they 
draw  such  a  character  except  from  the  living  person? 
And  who  could  this  person  have  been,  if  not  he  who 
came  down  from  heaven?  How  short  was  his  stay 
upon  earth!  scarcely  two  years  of  public  life,  and  yet 
how  glorious,  how  permanent  the  results!  A  world 
disenthralled,  corrupting  and  debasing  superstitions 
overthrown,  men  placed  in  circumstances  of  im- 
provement by  which  they  are  continually  advancing 
their  social  and  public  welfare;  and  now,  nearly  two 
thousand  years  after  his  death,  while  other  founders 
of  religious  systems  of  more  recent  origin  have 
already  lost  their  hold  on  the  human  mind,  the  influ- 
ence of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  yet  rife  and  fresh,  and 
more  extensive  and  powerful  than  it  has  ever  been 
before;  still  increasing  and  strengthening  and  bright- 
ening, and  evidently  to  go  on  till  the  affections  of 
every  human  heart  shall  be  gained,  and  every  tongue 
shall  confess  him. Lord!  Has  all  this  grown  out  of  a 
fiction  contrived  by  the  poor  fishermen  of  Galilee? 

6.  A  comparison  of  these  books  with  the  spurious 
gospels,  and  other  similar  writings  of  that  and  the 
subsequent  period,  sets  the  whole  argument  in  the 
strongest  possible  light,  and  shows  conclusively,  that 
the  received  gospels  must  have  had  an  origin  alto- 
gether different.     The  puerilities  of  these  spurious^ 


THE    FOUR    GOSPELS^  HI 

books,  their  absurdities  and  contradictions,  and  their 
total  destitution  of  all  moral  interest,  throw  additional 
lustre  upon  the  dignity,  the  correctness,  and  the  sub- 
lime moral  tone  and  thrilling  religious  sentiment  of 
the  genuine  writings  of  the  New  Testament.  As  an 
example,  take  the  following  paragraphs  from  the 
gospel  of  the  Infancy  of  Jesus,  and  contrast  them 
with  any  portion  of  equal  length  from  either  of  the 
acknowledged  gospels. 

'And  Joseph,  wheresoever  he  went  in  the  city, 
took  the  Lord  Jesus  with  him,  where  he  was  sent  for 
to  work,  to  make  gates,  or  milk-pails,  or  sieves,  or 
boxes;  the  Lord  Jesus  was  wdth  him,  wheresoever 
he  went.  And  as  often  as  Joseph  had  any  thing  in 
his  work  to  make  longer  or  shorter,  or  wqder  or  nar- 
rower, the  Lord  Jesus  would  stretch  his  hand 
towards  it,  and  presently  it  became  as  Joseph  would 
have  it;  so  that  he  had  no  need  to  finish  any  thing 
with  his  own  hands,  for  he  was  not  very  skilful  at 
his  carpenter's  trade.' 

'On  a  certain  time  the  king  of  Jerusalem  sent  for 
him,  and  said,  "I  would  have  thee  make  me  a  throne, 
of  the  same  dimensions  of  that  place  in  which  I  com- 
monly sit."  Joseph  obeyed  and  forthw^ith  began  the 
work,  and  continued  two  years  in  the  king's  palace 
before  he  finished  it.  And  when  he  came  to  fix  it 
in  its  place,  he  found  it  wanted  two  spans  on  each 
side,  of  the  appointed  measure,  which  when  the 
king  saw,  he  was  very  angry  with  Joseph;  and  Jo- 
seph, afraid  of  the  king's  anger,  went  to  bed  without 
his  supper,  not  taking  any  thing  to  eat.  Then  the 
Lord  Jesus  asked  him  what  he  was  afraid  of.     Joseph 


112  THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

replied,  Because  I  have  lost  my  labor  in  the  work 
which  I  have  been  about  these  two  years.  Jesus 
said  to  him,  "Fear  not,  neither  be  cast  down;  do 
thou  lay  hold  on  one  side  of  the  throne,  and  I  will 
the  other;  and  we  will  bring  it  to  its  just  dimen- 
sions." And  when  Joseph  had  done  as  the  Lord 
Jesus  said,  and  each  of  them  had  with  strength  drawn 
his  side,  the  throne  obeyed  and  was  brought  to  the 
proper  dimensions  of  the  place;  which  miracle,  when 
they  who  stood  by  saw,  they  w^ere  astonished  and 
praised  God.  The  throne  w^as  made  of  the  same 
wood  which  was  in  being  in  Solomon's  time,  namely, 
wood  adorned  with  various  shapes  and  figures.' 

The  above  is  not  an  unfavorable  specimen  of  the 
matter  and  style  of  these  spurious  productions. 
Even  the  genuine  writings  of  the  leading  christian 
teachers  who  succeeded  the  apostles,  as  Clemens 
Romanus,  Ignatius,  Polycarp,  and  others,  fall  very 
far  below  the  dignity,  the  intelligence,  the  strong 
practical  sense,  and  the  purity  of  religious  feeling, 
everywhere  so  manifest  in  the  writings  of  the  New 
Testament.  These  writings,  and  all  others  which 
were  not  received  as  canonical,  whether  genuine 
and  valuable  or  not,  were  by  the  primitive  churches 
called  aj)ocryphal  -^^^p"?*  {apokrujjlia)  hidden  or  con- 
cealed^ because  they  were  not  regarded  as  author- 
itative, nor  used  in  the  public  religious  services, 
nor  kept  in  the  sacred  depository.  At  present  the 
term  is  generally  used  to  designate  a  spurious  book 
which  claims  a  divine  authority  that  it  does  not  pos- 
sess, though  some  of  the  apocryphal  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  authentic  and  valuable  produc- 


THE    FOUR    GOSPELS,  113 

tions,  as,  for  example,  the  first  book  of  Maccabees, 
and  the  book  of  Jesus  son  of  Sirach. 

Most  of  the  apocryphal  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament have  been  translated  into  English,  and  they 
were  published  in  London  in  1820,  and  a  second 
edition  in  1821  (See  Home's  Introduction,  vol.  i.  p. 
635,  ft'). 

As  a  specimen  of  another  kind,  read  the  following, 
from  the  gospel  of  Nicodemus.  It  is  a  part  of  the 
description  of  Christ's  descent  into  hell. 

'  Then  w^as  there  a  great  voice  as  of  the  sound  of 
thunder,  saying.  Lift  up  your  heads,  O  princes,  and 
be  ye  lifted  up,  ye  gates  of  hell,  and  the  king  of 
glory  will  enter  in.  The  prince  of  hell  perceiving 
the  same  voice  repeated,  cried  out  as  though  he  had 
been  ignorant.  Who  is  that  king  of  glory?  David 
replied  to  the  prince  of  hell  and  said,  I  understand 
the  w^ords  of  that  voice,  because  I  spake  them  by  his 
Spirit.  And  now,  as  I  have  above  said,  I  say  unto 
thee.  The  Lord  strong  and  powerful,  the  Lord 
mighty  in  battle,  he  is  the  king  of  glory,  and  he  is 
the  Lord  in  heaven  and  in  earth:  He  hath  looked 
down  to  hear  the  groans  of  the  prisoners,  and  to  set 
loose  those  that  are  appointed  to  death.  And  now 
thou  filthy  and  stinking,  prince  of  hell,  open  thy 
gates,  that  the  king  of  glory  may  enter  in,  for  he  is 
the  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth.  While  David  was 
saying  this,  the  mighty  Lord  appeared  in  the  form  of 
a  man,  and  enlightened  those  places  which  had  ever 
before  been  in  darkness,  and  broke  asunder  the  fet- 
ters which  before  could  not  be  broken,  and  with  his. 
inconceivable  power  visited  those  who  sat  in  the- 
10* 


114  THE    FOUR    GOSPELS^ 

deep  darkness  by  iniquity,  and  the  shadows  of  death 
by  sin/ 

'Impious  death  and  her  cruel  officers  hearing  these 
things,  were  seized  with  fear  in  their  several  king- 
doms, when  they  saw  the  clearness  of  the  light,  and 
Christ  himself  on  a  sudden  appearing  in  their  habita- 
tions. They  cried  out,  therefore,  and  said,  We  are 
bound  by  thee;  thou  seemest  to  intend  our  confu- 
sion before  the  Lord.  Who  art  thou,  who  hast  no 
signs  of  confusion,  but  that  bright  appearance  which 
is  a  full  proof  of  thy  greatness,  of  which  yet  thou 
seemest  to  take  no  notice?' 

•^'  :¥•  ^  *  *  * 

'Then  the  king  of  glory,  trampling  upon  death, 
seized  the  prince  of  hell,  deprived  him  of  all  his 
power,  and  took  our  earthly  father  Adam  with  him 
to  his  glory.' 


CHAPTER    SEVENTH 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS. 


GENERAL    REMARKS. 


One  of  the  first  remarks  we  make  on  examining^ 
the  four  gospels  is,  that  while  the  first  three  have  a 
striking  general  resemblance  to  each  other,  the 
fourth  is  altogether  peculiar,  frequently  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  narrative  itself  and  always  in  the  mode 
of  narrating.  So  marked  is  this  peculiarity  of  John, 
that  the  simple  enunciation  of  a  single  sentence  from 
his  gospel  strikes  the  ear  in  a  way  that  precludes  the 
possibility  of  referring  it  to  either  of  the  other 
evangelists. 

Another  thing  which  we  notice  is,  that  the  several 
evangelists,  in  narrating  the  same  circumstance  or 
reporting  the  same  discourse,  seldom  or  never  em- 
ploy exactly  the  same  words;  but  each  rather  gives 
the  sense  in  forms  of  expression  slightly  varied.  To 
illustrate  this  fact  by  a  single  example,  take  the  sen- 
tence which  was  pronounced  from  heaven  at  the  time 
of  our  Saviour's  baptism.  Matthew  (iii.  1 7)  gives  it, 
'  This  is  my  beloved  son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleas- 
ed;' Mark  (i.  11)  Thou  art  my  beloved  son,  in  whom 
lam  well  pleased;'  and  Luke  (iii.  22)  'Thou  art  my 


116  CHARACTER     OF    TTTE    GOSPELS* 

beloved  son,  in  thee  I  am  well  pleased.'  A  like  vari- 
ation is  often  observable  in  the  quotation  of  the 
same  passage  of  the  Old  Testament  by  the  different 
writers  of  the  New.  For  example,  compare  Deut. 
viii.  3  and  vi.  13,  as  quoted  by  Matthew  (iv.  4,  10) 
and  by  Luke  (iv.  4,  8).  In  all  these  cases,  the  sense 
is  faithfully  preserved,  but  the  phraseology  is  varied. 
The  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  indeed,  never 
appear  to  aim  at  exact  quotations  of  language,  and 
provided  the  meaning  is  given,  the  mode  of  ex- 
pression is  regarded  as  of  comparatively  little 
importance. 

Two  of  the  evangelists  only,  Matthew  and  Luke^ 
give  an  account  of  the  birth  and  childhood  of  Christ; 
but  all  the  four  are  very  particular  in  their  details 
respecting  his  death  and  resurrection;  for  these 
were  the  great  events  on  which  the  most  important 
consequences  depended. 

The  most  important  fact,  however,  to  be  borne 
in  mind  in  reading  the  gospels,  is,  that  they  are 
neither  histories  nor  full  biographies,  but  simply 
scattered  notices  of  transactions  and  discourses  in- 
tended to  illustrate  particular  points  in  the  character 
of  Christ,  and  so  arranged  as  to  secure  this  purpose, 
but  with  little  regard  to  the  order  of  time.  The 
evangelists  disclaim  all  intention  of  writing  complete 
and  consecutive  narratives,  and  declare  that  their 
whole  design  is,  by  relating  a  few  facts,  to  give  such 
an  impression  respecting  the  character,  teachings, 
and  works  of  Christ,  as  might  induce  men  to  receive 
him  as  the  promised  Messiah,  the  Saviour  of  the 
world  (John  xx.  30,  31;  xxi.  25).     The  evangelist 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS.  117 

here  says,  expressly,  that  he  had  taken  but  few  facts 
from  the  whole  number  which  had  fallen  under  his 
notice,  and  that  these  had  been  selected  with  exclu- 
sive reference  to  the  object  above  stated.  We  are 
not  to  look,  therefore,  for  complete  biography  or 
chronological  arrangement  in  the  gospels,  but  only 
for  detached  examples  of  the  teachings  and  doings 
of  Christ,  suited  to  illustrate  his  character. 

The  character  of  the  gospels  in  this  respect  can 
be  easily  illustrated  by  analogous  examples  from 
classical  literature.  After  the  death  of  Socrates, 
his  disciples  Plato  and  Xenophon  undertook  by  their 
literary  efforts  to  vindicate  the  character  of  their 
master  from  the  aspersions  cast  upon  it  by  his  ene- 
mies. The  work  of  Xenophon  is  divided  into  four 
books  and  subdivided  into  distinct  topics.  The 
topics  of  the  first  book  are  the  following: 

I.  Socrates  did  not  contemn  the  gods  of  his  coun- 
try, nor  introduce  new  objects  of  worship. 

II.  Socrates  was  not  a  corrupter  of  young  men. 

III.  What  sort  of  man  Socrates  was,  both  in 
words  and  deeds,  during  his  whole  life. 

IV.  How  Socrates  demonstrated  the  existence  of 
God. 

V.  How  Socrates  discoursed  on  temperance. 

VI.  Disputation  of  Socrates  with.  Antiphon  the 
sophist. 

VII.  How  Socrates  dissuaded  men  from  arrogance. 
Each  of  these  topics  is  illustrated  by  anecdotes 

respecting  Socrates,  and  by  reports  of  conversations 
which  he  had  with  different  persons,  bearing  on  the 
several  points ;  and  these  are  thrown  together  in  the 


118  CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELSr 

manner  best  suited  to  illustrate  the  different  topicsy 
without  regard  to  the  order  of  time  in  which  the 
transactions  or  conversations  actually  took  place, 
and  without  any  endeavor  to  preserve  the  appear- 
ance of  continuity  of  narrative.  Accordingly,  this 
work  is  never  regarded  as  a  biography  of  Socrates, 
and  is  always  referred  to  under  the  appellation  of 
memoirs  or  memorabilia.  Its  Greek  title  »^°f*^'^i**yivf*-^u 
{apomnemoneumata)  is  applied  by  Justin  Martyr  to 
the  gospels,  and  with  great  propriety,  for  they  are 
works   of  precisely  the  same  kind. 

An  examination  of  the  gospel  of  Matthew  will 
show,  that  it  is  constructed  on  a  plan  very  similar  to 
that  of  Xenophon's  Memorabilia  of  Socrates.  After 
a  brief  notice  of  the  birth  and  childhood  of  Jesus 
(i.  ii.),  and  his  entrance  on  his  public  ministry 
(iii.  iv.),  Matthew  proceeds  to  show  what  Christ  was 
as  a  public  teacher  of  religion,  and  gives  an  adequate 
example  of  the  nature  of  his  instructions  and  his 
mode  of  communicating  them,  by  reporting  at  con- 
siderable length  the  substance  of  his  sermon  on  the 
ijiount  (v-vii).  I  say  the  substance  of  the  sermon, 
for  it  is  evident  that  Matthew  does  not  give  the 
whole  discourse  word  for  word  as  it  was  uttered, 
from  the  fact  that  Luke,  who  makes  a  much  briefer 
abstract  of  the  same  sermon  (vi.  20-49),  has  yet 
inserted  some  things  omitted  by  Matthew,  as  for  ex- 
ample, the  three  woes  corresponding  to  the  beati- 
tudes (Luke  vi.  25). 

Matthew  next  exhibits  Christ  as  a  worker  of  mira- 
cles, and  collects  into  one  connected  view  several 
miracles   of   different    kinds,   wrought    in    various 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS.  119 

places  and  at  different  times,  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  what  Christ  was  in  reference  to  the  exercise 
of  miraculous  powers  (viii.  ix). 

He  afterwards  exhibits  Christ  in  another  view,  as 
a  teacher  by  parables,  and  collects  together  several 
different  parables  as  a  specimen  of  this  most  inter- 
esting mode  of  teaching  (xiii). 

Thus  throughout  his  gospel,  Matthew  does  not  fol- 
low any  chronological  series  of  events  or  instruc- 
tions, but  groups  together  things  of  the  same  kind, 
and  shows,  by  a  series  of  living  pictures,  what  Christ 
was  in  all  the  various  circumstances  through  which 
he  passed.  This  mode  of  waiting  was  chosen  by 
him,  for  the  same  reason  that  it  had  been  before  by 
Xenophon,  because  it  was  the  best  adapted  to  the 
particular  purpose  he  had  in  view,  which  was  to 
vindicate  the  character  of  Christ  before  his  country- 
men, and  set  it  in  its  true  light. 

Christ  had  been  the  great  moral  teacher  and  bene- 
factor of  his  nation.  He  had  been  undervalued, 
slandered,  and  persecuted  all  his  life,  and  was  at  last 
unjustly  doomed  to  a  cruel  death,  attended  with  all 
the  circumstances  of  indignity  and  shame,  which 
could  be  brought  together  to  blast  his  reputation 
and  throw  a  shade  over  the  splendor  of  his  exalted 
virtues.  MattheAv,  his  disciple,  like  Xenophon,  the 
disciple  of  Socrates,  knew  and  could  appreciate  his 
master's  worth;  and  by  a  simple  detail  of  what  he 
did  and  said  in  various  circumstances  and  on  differ- 
ent topics,  sought  to  disarm  the  prejudices  of  his 
countrymen,  and  bring  them  to  see  what  sort  of  a 


120  CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS. 

man  he  was,  whom  their  rulers  with  wicked  hands 
had  crucified  and  slain. 

After  these  general  remarks  we  shall  now  turn 
our  attention  to  the  particular  circumstances  of 
each  one  of  the  evangelists,  the  special  object  each 
had  in  view  w^hile  writing,  and  the  distinguishing 
peculiarities  of  each  one  of  the  several  gospels. 

For  a  knowledge  of  these  particulars  we  must 
rely  mainly  on  incidental  and  brief  hints  scattered 
through  the  New  Testament;  for  the  evangelists 
never  make  themselves  prominent  in  their  narratives, 
nor  give  any  details  respecting  their  personal  history 
and  circumstances.  They  preach  not  themselves^  hut 
Christ  Jesus  the  Lord, 

II.    GOSPEL    OF    MATTHEW. 

Matthew  was  a  Galilean  Jew,  and  held  the  office 
of  a  receiver  of  customs  under  the  Roman  govern- 
ment, at  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  near  Capernaum  (Matt. 
ix.  9).  By  Mark  he  is  called  Levi,  son  of  Alpheus 
(Mark  ii.  14).  When  a  Jew  became  a  Roman  citi- 
zen he  generally  assumed  a  Roman  name;  and  it  is 
probable  that  Levi  was  the  original  Hebrew,  and 
Matthew  the  assumed  Roman  name  of  this  evange- 
list. He  left  his  business  at  the  call  of  Christ,  and 
became  his  permanent  attendant  and  one  of  the 
twelve  apostles  a  short  time  before  the  delivery  of 
the  sermon  on  the  mount  (Luke  v.  27).  In  enume- 
rating the  apostles  he  calls  himself  Matthew  the 
publican  (Matt.  x.  9)  or  customhouse  officer,  a  name 
exceedingly  odious  to  the  oppressed  Jews. 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS.  121 

The  nature  of  the  publican's  office,  and  the  injus- 
tice and  oppression  which  these  officers  generally 
practised,  were  enough  to  excite  odium  in  a  nation 
less  sensitive  than  the  Jewish.  When  the  Romans 
subjugated  the  Jews,  they  treated  them  as  they  did 
other  conquered  nations,  that  is,  they  required  ot 
every  man,  in  addition  to  various  taxes,  the  payment 
of  an  annual  tribute,  as  a  token  of  his  subjection 
and  for  the  support  of  the  dignity  of  the  Roman 
empire.  This  tribute  was  extremely  hateful  to  the 
Jews,  who  boasted  that  they  had  no  sovereign  but 
God,  that  they  were  Abraham's  seed,  and  were  not 
in  bondage  to  any  man.  But  oppressive  as  this  tax 
was  in  itself,  it  often  became  still  more  so  by  the 
manner  in  which  it  was  collected.  It  was  customary 
for  the  government  to  expose  the  taxes  of  a  province 
to  sale,  and  he  who  would  offer  the  most  for  them 
had  the  privilege  of  collecting;  and  all  that  he  could 
obtain  above  the  amount  paid  to  the  government, 
went  to  enrich  himself.  Those  who  had  thus  taken 
the  taxes  of  a  whole  province,  would  divide  the 
province  into  districts,  and  expose  them  to  sale  in 
the  same  manner;  and  often  the  district  would  be 
subdivided  and  sold  again;  so  that  sometimes  three 
or  four  different  sets  of  extortioners  were  to  be  en- 
riched out  of  the  surplus  tribute  money  of  the  people, 
above  that  which  went  into  the  public  treasury.  As 
the  right  of  collecting  was  frequently  sold  from  one 
to  another  at  an  increasing  price,  it  was  for  the  inte- 
rest of  the  publican  to  extort  as  much  as  possible; 
and  as  the  general  government  participated  with  the 
publicans  in  their  plunder,  it  was  for  their  interest 
11 


122  CHARACTER    OF   THE    GOSPELS. 

to  listen  to  no  complaint  against  the  collectors  of 
their  revenue.  There  was  scarcely  a  possibility  of 
redress  in  case  of  wrong;  and  if  one  refused  to  sub- 
mit to  injustice,  frequently  by  false  accusation  he 
was  robbed  of  his  whole  property  (compare  Luke 
iii.  12-14;  xix.  1-10).  It  is  no  wonder  then,  that  the 
very  name  of  publican  became  odious,  and  synony- 
mous with  that  of  sinner;  though  doubtless  there 
were  several  who  performed  the  duties  of  this  office 
in  an  honorable  and  conscientious  manner. 

It  is  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  ancients,  that 
Matthew  wrote  his  gospel  for  the  use  of  the  Jewish 
christians  of  Palestine;  and  this  testimony  is  con- 
firmed by  internal  evidence.  The  writer  everywhere 
takes  it  for  granted,  that  his  readers  are  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  geography  of  Palestine;  and  he  does  not 
consider  it  necessary  to  explain  any  of  the  Jewish 
customs  to  which  he  alludes.  The  considerations, 
which  he  adduces  to  prove  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus, 
are  such  as  would  have  most  weight  with  Jews.  He 
traces  the  genealogy  of  Christ  from  his  reputed 
father  through  David  to  Abraham;  and  takes  parti- 
cular pains  to  show  how  the  prophecies  of  the  Old 
Testament  were  fulfilled  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  Com- 
pare i.  23;  ii.  6,  15,  18;  iii.  3;  iv.  14;  viii.  17;  xii. 
17;  xiii.  35;  xxi.  4;  xxvi.  56]  xxvii.  9.  Indeed,  it  is 
the  leading  object  of  his  gospel  to  prove  that  Jesus  is 
the  Messiah  spoken  of  by  the  prophets,  an  argument 
which  at  that  time  Jews  only  could  appreciate. 

Irenseus  mentions  that  this  gospel  was  written 
while  Peter  and  Paul  were  at  Rome,  between  60 
and  65  A.  C. 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS*  123 

It  is  the  testimony  of  Papias,-  bishop  of  Hieropolis, 
early  in  the  second  century,  and  indeed  of  the  an- 
cients generally,  that  Matthew  originally  wrote  his 
gospel  in  Hebrew.  It  is  highly  probable  that  he 
might  have  written  some  brief  notices  of  the  Saviour 
in  the  vernacular  language  of  his  countrymen;  but 
that  the  Greek  gospel  we  now  have,  is  the  only  gen- 
uine gospel  of  Matthew,  is  sustained  by  the  strong- 
est proof. 

1.  No  trace  of  any  such  Hebrew  gospel  has  ever 
been  discovered,  nor  a  single  quotation  made  from  it 
by  any  ancient  writer. 

2.  The  whole  structure  and  complexion  of  the 
Greek  gospel  shows  it  to  be  an  original  and  not  a 
translation. 

3.  In  Palestine,  at  the  time  when  Matthew  wrote, 
Greek  was  altogether  the  language  of  business,  of 
books,  and  to  a  great  extent,  especially  in  the  cities, 
of  common  conversation;  and  in  Jerusalem  itself, 
there  were  whole  congregations  of  Jews  who  spoke 
only  Greek.  Professor  Hug  has  given  this  subject  a 
very  thorough  and  satisfactory  investigation  in  his 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament  (vol.  ii.  p.  16- 
62  in  German);  and  his  reasonings  are  translated  and 
published  in  the  Biblical  Repository  for  July,  1831, 
(p.  531  f ). 

As  the  result  of  this  investigation,  it  appears  that 
Matthew  must  have  had  the  followina;  inducements 
to  write  his  gospel  in  Greek: 

1.  If  he  wrote  in  Greek  the  mass  of  the  people 
would  understand  him ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  most 
of  the  cities  of  Palestine,  the  Greek  congregations 


124  CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS. 

in  Jerusalem,  and  the  Hellenistic  Jews  in  the  christian 
church,  who  were  very  numerous  (Acts  vi.  1),  could 
not  have  understood  him,  if  he  had  written  in  any 
other  language. 

2.  If  he  regarded  the  eastern  territories  and  the 
regions  of  Decapolis,  with  which  his  former  business 
had  brought  him  into  intimate  connection,  he  had  a 
preponderating  motive  to  employ  the  Greek  language. 

3.  '  At  the  same  time,  if  he  had  the  adjacent  west- 
ern regions  in  view,  if  he  looked  on  Antioch,  the 
capital  of  Syria,  where  the  believers  were  first  called 
christians,  or  on  the  neighboring  Syrian  churches;  if 
he  thought  of  Tyre,  where  a  christian  school  already 
flourished,  or  of  Sidon  and  other  cities  on  the  Pheni- 
cian  coast,  (Acts  xi.  26;  xv.  23,  41;  xxi.  3,  4;  xxvii, 
3),  he  must,  if  he  wished  to  be  understood,  have 
•written  in  the  Greek  language. 

4.  'If  his  whole  thoughts  were  fixed  on  those  latter 
times  of  the  people,  in  which  he  wrote  his  book, 
believing  the  predictions  of  his  Lord,  which  caused 
him  to  expect  an  approaching  dissolution  of  the 
Jewish  state,  of  the  prelude  to  which  he  was  himself 
already  an  eyewitness;  and  if  he  wished  to  produce 
an  efiect,  even  when  this  should  be  completed;  if  he 
w'lshed  to  be  still  understood,  when  the  remnant  of 
the  Jews,  without  a  temple  and  without  public  wor- 
ship, wandering  about  and  destitute  of  houses  in  their 
own  native  land,  should  have  yielded  up  their  posses- 
sions to  others;  if  he  were  desirous  of  writing  not 
merely  for  a  few  years  or  a  few  months;  then  he 
would  never  have  written  in  the  language  of  this 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS.  125 

people,  who  in  a  short  time  would  cease  to  exist  as  a 
people.' 

We  may  add,  that  the  business  in  which  Matthew 
had  been  engaged  previous  to  his  call  to  the  apostle- 
ship,  renders  it  certain  that  he  was  himself  acquainted 
with  the  Greek  language,  even  if  we  leave  entirely  out  *^;_. 
of  view  the  fact,  that  the  apostles  w^ere  supernaturally  i-' 
endowed  with  the  gift  of  tongues  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost (Acts  ii). 

Matthew  may  be  styled  a  plain,  matter  of  fact 
writer;  and  the  habits  of  his  mind  are  evidently  those 
of  a  man  of  business  rather  than  study.  He  exhibits 
Christ  mostly  in  his  earthly  character  and  relations; 
as  a  lawgiver,  promulgating  the  new  dispensation 
from  the  Mount,  as  Moses  did  the  old  from  Sinai;  as 
a  worker  of  miracles  and  a  teacher.  Because  he 
thus  treated  of  Christ  in  his  earthly  employments 
and  human  character,  his  gospel  was  by  the  ancients 
called  c-*^«T.xDv  [somatikon)  or  the  bodily  gospel. 

He  is  very  brief  in  narrative,  disregarding  almost 
entirely  the  order  of  time,  but  particular  in  his  re- 
ports of  the  discourses  and  parables  of  our  Lord,  and 
generally  he  gives  only  just  enough  of  the  narrative 
to  introduce  the  discourse.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as 
in  some  others,  his  gospel  bears  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  the  work  of  Xenophon  alluded  to  above. 

Indeed,  there  is  the  same  sort  of  difference  betw^een 
the  accounts  of  Jesus  Christ  as  given  by  Matthew 
and  John,  that  we  find  between  the  accounts  of  Soc- 
rates as  given  by  Xenophon  and  Piato. 

ir-^ 


I  26  CHARACTER    OF    THE     GOSPELS. 


in.    GOSPEL    OF    MARK. 

Mark  was  the  son  of  a  pious  woman  in  Jerusalem, 
and  tiie  intimate  friend  of  the  apostle  Peter  (Acts  xii. 
12;  1  Pet.  V.  13).  He  was  also  the  friend  and  com- 
panion of  Paul  (Acts  xii.  25;  xiii.  5),  till  some  neglect 
of  his,  which  occasioned  a  misunderstanding  be- 
tween Paul  and  Barnabas  respecting  him,  produced 
a  separation  (Acts  xv.  36-41).  Paul  afterwards 
became  reconciled  to  him,  perhaps  when  he  met  him 
at  Rome  in  company  with  Peter,  and  speaks  of  him 
in  several  of  his  epistles  with  great  confidence  and 
affection  (Col.  iv.  10;  2  Tim.  iv.  11;  Philemon  24). 

According  to  the  almost  unanimous  testimony  of 
antiquity,  his  gospel  was  written  at  Rome,  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  apostle  Peter,  a  little  after 
that  of  Matthew,  and  it  was  intended  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  Roman  converts  from  paganism.  To 
this,  internal  evidence  corresponds.  Some  learned 
men  have  supposed  they  could  discover  a  Latin  com- 
plexion in  his  style. 

He  carefully  explains  allusions  to  Jewish  customs, 
as  if  wi'iting  for  those  who  were  unacquainted  with 
them  (Mark  vii.  2-4 ;  xv.  6).  He  is  much  more  brief 
than  the  other  evangelists,  and  has  but  twenty  four 
verses  which  are  not  found  in  Matthew  and  Luke. 
Unlike  Matthew  he  is  very  particular  in  narrative, 
and  very  much  condenses  the  conversations  and  dis- 
courses of  Jesus. 

There  is  no  proof  that  he  had  ever  seen  the  gospel 
of  Matthew  before  writing  his  own;  much  less  that 
his  own  is  an  abridgment  of  Matthew's,  as  some 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS.  127 

have  supposed.  The  contrary  is  shown  from  the 
fact,  that  lie  is  in  not  a  few  instances  much  more 
particular  in  his  narratives  than  Matthew.  (Compare 
Mark  v.  1  with  Mat.  viii.  28;  Mark  ix.  14  with  Mat. 
xvii.  12-14;  and  Mark  xiv.  66,  67  with  Matt.  xxvi.  69)- 

IV.    GOSPEL    OF    LUKE. 

Luke  was  a  Gentile  by  birth,  and  a  physician 
(Col.  iv.  11,  14),  and  according  to  the  testimony  of 
the  ancients,  a  citizen  of  Antioch,  w^here  the  follow- 
ers of  Christ  were  first  called  christians.  He  was 
acquainted  with  Greek  literature,  as  is  evident  from 
the  style  and  structure  of  his  two  works,  the  gospel 
and  book  of  Acts,  and  his  mode  of  addressing  them 
to  Theophilus.  He  became  a  zealous  christian,  made 
himself  familiarly  acquainted  by  personal  investiga- 
tion (Luke  i.  1-4)  with  all  the  circumstances  attend- 
ing the  origin  of  Christianity,  diligently  studied  the 
Hebrew  scriptures,  and  was  the  constant  companion 
of  the  apostle  Paul. 

Of  Theophilus,  the  friend  to  whom  he  inscribes 
his  two  works,  nothing  is  known  with  certainty. 
He  was  probably  a  Greek  who  lived  out  of  Palestine, 
and  perhaps  at  Antioch,  the  native  city  of  Luke. 

The  gospel  of  Luke  was  written  at  about  the  same 
time  with  that  of  Mark;  and  as  the  latter  appears  to 
have  been  designed  particularly  for  the  Romans,  so 
the  former  seems  especially  adapted  to  the  Greeks. 
Luke  represents  Christ  as  the  Saviour  of  the  world, 
without  distinction  of  nations,  and  traces  his  gene- 
alogy through  his  mother  Mary  to  Adam,  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  whole  human  family;  in  this  particular 


128  CHARACTER    OF   THE    GOSPELS. 

affording  a  contrast  to  the  obviously  Jewish  com- 
plexion of  the  first  chapter  of  Matthew.  He  is  cir- 
cumstantial in  narrative,  gives  the  dialogues  of  Christ 
with  particularity,  and  is  careful  to  insert  geographi- 
cal notices  of  the  places  in  Palestine  which  he  men- 
tions (Luke  i.  26;  iv.  31;  viii.  2G;  Acts  i.  12). 

Of  all  the  evangelists  he  is  the  only  one  who  gives 
a  detailed  account  of  the  circumstances  which  pre- 
ceded and  attended  the  births  of  John  Baptist  and 
Jesus;  and  in  this  part  of  his  gospel  the  style  is  more 
strongly  Hebraistic  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
New  Testament,  if  we  except  the  Apocalypse. 
Luke  probably  copied  this  narrative  and  the  genealogy 
just  as  he  found  them  in  the  family  of  Elizabeth  and 
Mary. 


K''- 


V.    GOSPEL    OF    JOHN. 


John,  the  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome,  and  the 
brother  of  James,  w^as  born  in  Bethsaida  of  Galilee, 
the  native  city  of  Andrew  and  Peter  (John  i.  40; 
Matt.  iv.  18,  21).  From  the  circumstances,  that  the 
father  of  John  owned  vessels  on  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
and  had  hired  servants  in  his  employ;  and  that  his 
mother  was  one  of  those  who  provided  for  the  sup- 
port of  Jesus  and  purchased  costly  spices  for  his  em- 
balming; and  that  he  had  a  house  in  Jerusalem,  and 
was  personally  known  to  the  high  priest;  it  is  infer- 
red that  his  family  w^ere  in  possession  of  property, 
and  of  respectable  rank.  (Compare  Mark  i.  20;  Matt, 
xxvii.  56;  Luke  xxiii.  56;  John  xix.  27;  xviii.  15). 
These  circumstances  of  superiority  might  possibly 
have  emboldened  the  mother  of  James  and  John  to 


CHARACTER    OF   THE    GOSPELS.  129 

make  for  them  the  obnoxious  request  for  precedence 
over  the  other  disciples  (Matt.  xx.  20-24;  Mark  x. 
35).  His  mother  was  a  devoted  follower  of  Christ, 
but  nothing  is  said  respecting  the  religious  character 
of  his  father. 

He  was  originally  a  disciple  of  John  Baptist,  and 
was  among  the  first  to  follow  Christ  (John  i.  35). 
Having  afterwards  returned  to  his  business,  he  was 
one  of  the  first  whom  Jesus  called  to  the  apostleship 
(Matt.  iv.  18,  21).  Andrew  and  Peter,  James  and 
John  were  the  first  chosen  of  the  apostles;  three  ot 
them,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  were  selected  by  Jesus 
to  witness  the  glories  of  his  transfiguration  (Matt. 
xvii.  1 ;  Mark  v.  37),  and  the  agonies  of  his  humilia- 
tion in  the  garden;  two,  Peter  and  John,  remained 
with  him  when  all  the  others  forsook  him  and  fled 
(John  xviii,  15);  and  one  only  stood  by  him  to  the 
last  and  witnessed  his  death  (John  xix.  26),  and  this 
one  was  John;  and  to  him  the  expiring  Jesus  afiec- 
tionately  committed  the  care  of  his  mother,  request- 
ing him  to  discharge  towards  her  the  duties  of  a  son. 
'Now  there  stood  by  the  cross  of  Jesus  his 
mother  and  his  mother's  sister,  Mary  the  wife  of 
Cleopas,  and  Mary  Magdalene.  When  Jesus,  there- 
fore, saw  his  mother,  and  the  disciple  standing  by, 
whom  he  loved,  he  saith  unto  his  mother.  Woman, 
behold  thy  son !  Then  saith  he  to  the  disciple.  Be- 
hold thy  mother!  And  from  that  hour  that  disciple 
took  her  unto  his  own  house.' 

Peter  and  John  were  first  at  the  tomb  of  Christ, 
after  the  news  of  his  resurrection  (John  xx.  2-8)^ 


130  CHARACTER    OF    THE     GOSPELS. 

According  to  ancient  testimony,  John  was  the 
youngest  of  the  apostles,  and  some  four  or  five  years 
younger  than  Jesus,  and  the  gospel  designates  him  as 
the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved. 

He  remained  at  Jerusalem,  as  Eusebius  informs  us, 
till  after  the  death  of  Jesus'  mother  and  the  impris- 
onment of  Paul ;  when  he  went  to  Ephesus,  about 
A.  D.  65,  to  take  charge  of  the  important  church 
which  Paul  had  established  there  (Acts  xix.  1-20). 
Soon  after  he  was  banished  to  Patmos  by  Domitian 
(Rev.  i.  9),  where  he  wrote  the  Apocalypse.  In  the 
reign  of  Nerva,  he  was  restored  to  Ephesus,  where 
he  established  a  theological  school,  for  the  purpose 
of  supplying  the  numerous  churches  with  competent 
pastors,  as  they  could  no  longer  expect  the  continu- 
ance of  miraculous  qualifications.  Hence  he  receiv- 
ed the  appellation  of  the  theologian  or  divine.  While 
engaged  in  this  employment,  he  wrote  his  gospel  and 
epistles;  and  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  he  died  a  natural 
death  at  a  very  advanced  age.,  (Eusebius,  Eccl.  Hist. 
book  iii.  c.  18,  23,  31). 

From  several  instances  I'ecorded  of  him  in  the 
gospels,  he  seems  to  have  been  originally  of  an  im- 
petuous and  fiery  temper,  which  by  the  influence  of 
the  christian  religion  became  entirely  subdued,  and 
produced  the  warmth  of  affection,  that  soul-stirring 
energy  of  love,  the  softness,  mildness,  and  richness  of 
feeling,  which  we  so  much  admire  in  this  beloved 
apostle  (Lukeix.  49,54,  55;  Mark  iii.  17;  ix.  38,  39). 

His  gospel  probably  was  originally  written  for  the 
use  of  his  theological  students,  and  it  is  equally  dis- 
tinguished for  the  childlike  simplicity  of  its  language 


CHARACTER    OF   THE     GOSPELS.  131 

and  the  depth  and  pathos  of  its  sentiment.  It  is  sup- 
plementary to  the  others,  and  consists  principally  of 
the  discourses  of  Jesus,  which  are  characterized  by 
so  great  freshness  and  naturalness,  and  so  strong  an 
excitement  of  the  most  inward  emotions,  that  we  are 
inclined  to  believe  that  they  must  be  given  nearly 
word  for  word  as  they  were  uttered.  The  ancients, 
on  account  of  these  peculiarities,  called  this  the 
spiritual  gospel]  and  by  a  distinguished  modern,  Er- 
nesti,  it  has  been  styled  the  heai^t  of  Jesus,  Though 
the  most  simple  in  its  language,  it  is  the  most  difficult 
of  all  to  be  fully  comprehended.  There  is  great  pe- 
culiarity in  the  use  of  words,  such  as  lights  life,  word, 
&c.,  and  a  depth  of  meaning  which  has  not  often 
been  fully  explored.  It  is  always  a  favorite  book 
among  those  who  have  full  sympathy  with  the  spirit- 
uality of  the  christian  religion,  but  very  mystical  and 
obscure  to  such  as  know  Christianity  only  in  its  forms 
and  outward  precepts. 

Chrysostom,  in  speaking  of  this  gospel,  expresses 
himself  in  terms  like  the  following:  'If  the  spectators 
of  orators,  musicians,  and  athletes,  sit  with  so  great 
willingness  to  see  and  hear,  how  great  readiness 
and  zeal  should  we  manifest  when,  not  a  musician, 
not  a  sophist,  enters  the  scene,  but  a  man  speaking 
from  the  heavens  and  uttering  a  voice  more  majestic 
than  thunder!  For  he  seizes  and  holds  the  world,  and 
fills  it  with  his  tones,  not  by  a  loud  cry,  but  by  mov- 
ing his  tongue  with  divine  grace:  and  what  is  won- 
derful, this  voice,  though  so  great,  is  neither  harsh 
nor  unpleasant,  but  sweeter,  more  persuasive,  more 
enchanting  than  all  the  harmony  of  music;  and  be- 


132  CHARACTER    OF   THE    GOSPELS. 

sides  all  this,  most  holy  and  most  exciting,  full  of  un- 
speakable glories,  and  conveying  so  great  blessings, 
that  those  who  with  readiness  and  diligence  receive 
and  retain  them,  are  no  longer  like  mortal  men,  nor 
do  they  abide  upon  earth,  but  rise  above  all  transi- 
tory things,  and  being  transferred  to  the  angelic 
inheritance,  so  inhabit  earth  as  if  it  were  heaven' 
(Preface  to  Homilies  on  John). 

Augustine  speaks  with  equal  enthusiasm.  'In  the 
four  gospels,  or  rather  in  the  four  books  of  the  one 
gospel,  John  has  not  unaptly  been  compared  to  the 
eagle  on  account  of  his  etherial  intelligence;  for  he 
carries  his  preaching  to  a  much  higher  and  more  sub- 
lime elevation  than  the  other  three,  and  in  his  eleva- 
tion wills  our  hearts  also  to  be  raised.  The  other 
three  evangelists  walked  with  the  Lord  as  with  a  man 
on  earth,  and  said  but  little  concerning  his  divinity ; 
but  John,  as  if  it  were  irksome  to  him  to  remain  on 
earth,  thunders,  as  it  were,  in  the  very  beginning  of 
his  gospel,  rises  not  only  above  the  earth  and  above 
the  whole  circuit  of  the  atmosphere  and  heavens,  but 
even  above  all  the  hosts  of  angels,  and  the  whole 
order  of  the  invisible  powers,  and  makes  his  w^ay 
directly  to  him  by  w^hom  all  things  are  done,  saying: 
"  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was 
with  God,  and  the  Word  was  God."  The  rest  of  the 
gospel  corresponds  to  this  great  sublimity  of  its  com- 
mencement. He  freely  gave  what  he  had  freely 
received.  For  it  is  not  without  reason,  that  it  is  said 
of  him  in  this  very  gospel,  that  he  leaned  on  the 
breast  of  the  Lord  at  the  last  •  supper.     From  that 


CHARACTER    OF    THE     GOSPELS.  133 

breast  he  imbibed  in  secret,  and  what  he  had  imbibed 
in  secret  he  gave  out  openly.'  (Tract,  in  John,  36). 

Origen  also  says,  'It  is  not  too  much  to  affirm,  that 
as  the  gospels  are  the  chief  of  all  writings,  so  the 
gospel  of  John  is  the  chief  of  the  gospels;  but  no 
one  can  understand  it  except  by  reclining  on  the 
bosom  of  Jesus;  and  so  far,  indeed,  he  must  become 
another  John,  as  John  by  sympathy  becomes  another 
Jesus.'  (Com.  in  John). 

But  the  most  characteristic  description  of  the  pe- 
culiar style  of  John  is  by  Matthias  Claudius,  an  eccen- 
tric German  writer.  He  says,  'It  delights  me  most  of 
all  to  read  in  St.  John.  There  is  in  him  something 
so  entirely  wonderful,  twilight  and  night,  and  through 
it  the  swiftly  darting  lightning — a  soft  evening  cloud, 
and  behind  the  cloud  the  broad  full  moon  bodily; 
something  so  deeply,  sadly  pensive,  so  high,  so  full  of 
anticipation,  that  one  cannot  have  enough  of  it.  In 
reading  John,  it  is  with  me  always  as  though  I  saw 
him  before  me,  lying  on  the  bosom  of  his  Master,  at 
the  last  supper;  as  though  his  angel  were  holding 
the  light  for  me,  and  in  certain  passages  would  fall 
upon  my  neck,  and  whisper  something  in  my  ear. 

'I  am  far  from  understanding  every  thing  w^hich 
I  read,  but  it  often  seems  to  me  as  if  w^hat  John 
meant,  were  floating  before  me  in  the  distance;  and 
even  where  I  look  into  a  passage  altogether  dark,  I 
have  a  foretaste  of  some  great,  glorious  meaning, 
which  I  shall  one  day  understand,  and  for  this  reason 
I  grasp  so  eagerly  after  every  new  interpretation  of 
the  gospel  of  John.  Indeed,  the  most  of  them  only 
frizzle  the  evening  cloud,  and  the  moon  behind  it 
12 


134  CHARACTER     OF    THE    GOSPELS. 

has  quiet  rest.'  (Claudius's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  9,  in 
German). 

For  a  very  full  and  beautiful  delineation  of  the 
character  of  John,  I  refer  the  reader  to  the  Introduc- 
tion of  professor  Tholuck's  Commentary  on  this 
gospel  (in  German). 

VI.  RELATION  OF  THE  GOSPELS  TO  EACH  OTHER. 

In  the  four  evangelists,  we  have  a  fourfold  picture 
of  the  Saviour:  the  same  perfect  character  as  it  im- 
pressed its  image  on  four  minds  of  different  structure 
and  habits;  and  the  picture  in  each  instance  receives 
a  different  shade  of  coloring  in  consequence  of  the 
particular  purpose  of  each  writer. 

Matthew  developes  the  character  of  Christ  in  the 
way  best  adapted  to  take  hold  of  the  devout  Jews, 
looking  for  the  hope  of  their  fathers  as  promised  in 
the  Old  Testament.  Mark  writes  for  the  grave,  se- 
vere, matter  of  fact  Roman;  Luke,  for  the  versatile 
and  learned  Greek,  whose  eager  curiosity  could  never 
sleep — and  John,  for  the  deeply  reflecting,  philosophi- 
cal spirit,  which  feels  keenly  the  want  of  that  which 
earth  cannot  afford,  and  whose  intense  desires  remain 
unsatisfied  amid  all  the  physical  and  intellectual  lux- 
uries that  satiate  the  rest  of  mankind.  Matthew  ex- 
hibited the  human  and  subordinate;  John,  the  spirit- 
ual and  divine  of  the  Redeemer;  Mark,  his  official 
character;  and  Luke,  his  personal  history. 

In  the  four,  we  have  Jesus  represented  to  us  as  the 
Messiah,  the  Teacher,  the  Pattern,  and  the  God. 
(Compare  Olshausen's  Introduction  to  his  Commen- 
tary on  the  New  Testament,  in  German). 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    GOSPELS.  135 

Throughout  the  bible,  God  recognizes  the  princi- 
ple of  approaching  different  minds  by  different  means, 
and  has  so  arranged  his  word  that  no  constitutional 
peculiarity  remains  untouched.  Whatever  may  be 
your  peculiar  temperament  or  habits  of  mind,  in  the 
bible  you  will  find  a  Redeemer  adapted  to  your  wants, 
and  a  gospel  suited  to  your  condition.  Try  the 
character  and  claims  of  Jesus  by  the  various  and  pres- 
sing spiritual  necessities  of  men,  and  see  how  exactly 
he  answers  to  them  all ;  with  what  certainty  he  leads 
every  variety  of  character  submitted  to  his  direc- 
tion towards  its  own  proper  perfection;  by  what  ap- 
propriate methods  he  corrects  every  evil  disposition 
and  soothes  every  sorrow;  how  equally  he  reveals 
himself  to  the  most  enlightened  and  the  least  instruct- 
ed of  those  who  make  him  their  Saviour;  how  uni- 
formly all  his  precepts  are  fitted  to  the  nature  and 
condition  of  men  and  tend  to  promote  their  highest 
happiness;  how  strong  a  hold  he  has  on  the  warmest 
and  most  devoted  affections  of  all  who  choose  him 
for  their  friend;  with  what  undeviating  confidence 
they  trust- him,  and  with  what  unshaken  faith  they 
preserve  the  consciousness  of  his  presence  and  love; 
and  how  this  confidence  and  faith,  when  regulated  by 
his  instructions,  never  fails  to  impart  unalloyed  im- 
provement to  the  intellect  and  the  affections;  how 
hope  by  his  influence  continues  steady  through  every 
kind  of  worldly  trial,  and  brightens  to  rapturous 
vision  when  man  is  called  to  nature's  last  struggle — 
consider,  also,  that  all  this  influence  has  been  steadily 
increasing  from  its  first  commencement,  and  that  the 
number,  the  zeal,  the  intelligence,  and  the  power  of 


136  CHARACTER    OF    THE     GOSPELS. 

those  who  act  under  it,  was  never  so  great  as  at  the 
present  time,  and  never  so  rapidly  increasing — con- 
template all  this,  as  it  actually  occurs  in  this  cold,  sen- 
sual world,  and  awed  by  a  moral  miracle  more  stupen- 
dous than  the  darkness  and  the  earthquake,  the  rend- 
ing rocks  and  the  opening  graves  of  the  crucifixion- 
day,  will  you  not  exclaim  with  the  Roman  soldier, 
Truly^  this  man  was  the  Son  of  God!  (Mark  xv.  39). 


CHAPTER  EIGHTH. 


GENUINENESS  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE. 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 


1  CHOOSE  to  take  up  the  Apocalypse  next  to  the 
gospels,  because  its  genuineness  is  so  frequently 
called  in  question,  and  without  any  good  reason ;  and 
because,  it  being  a  work  of  the  apostle  John,  and 
exhibiting  in  a  strong  light  his  peculiar  characteris- 
tics, it  should  be  read  in  connection  with  his  gospel. 

The  official  activity  of  John  extended  through  a 
much  longer  period  than  that  of  any  other  of  the 
primitive  teachers  of  Christianity;  for  he  was  the 
youngest  of  the  apostles,  and  reached  a  far  more 
advanced  age  than  any  of  his  associates. 

On  account  of  his  known  character  as  the  personal 
favorite  and  bosom  friend  of  his  divine  Master,  the 
celebrity  of  his  writings,  the  extent  of  his  travels 
through  Christendom,  the  great  age  to  which  he 
lived,  his  being  looked  up  to  by  all  the  church  for  a 
long  period  as  the  only  man  living  who  had  seen  and 
familiarly  conversed  with  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  and  on 
account  of  the  number  of  young  men  who  were  pre- 
12* 


138  GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE. 

pared  for  the  christian  ministry  under  his  instruc- 
tions— on  these  accounts,  John  was  more  exten- 
sively known,  and  more  highly  venerated  among  the 
christian  churches  of  the  first  and  second  century, 
than  any  other  apostle,  unless  Paul  should  be  regard- 
ed as  an  exception. 

If,  then,  the  Apocalypse  be  falsely  ascribed  to 
John,  we  should  naturally  suppose  that  it  would  not 
have  been  ascribed  to  him  at  a  very  early  period; 
that  very  few,  if  any,  of  the  writers  who  lived  at  and 
near  his  time,  would  be  likely  to  fall  into  the  mistake, 
and  that  in  a  later  age,  the  book  would  gradually, 
and  in  the  face  of  opposition  from  the  better  inform- 
ed, work  its  way  into  public  confidence,  as  a  genuine 
production  of  the  beloved  disciple. 

But  the  historical  facts  in  the  case  are  directly 
the  reverse  of  all  these  reasonable  expectations, 
which  every  one  will  see  to  be  exactly  in  the  natural 
course  of  events,  on  the  supposition  that  the  book  is 
spurious.  The  testimony  of  the  early  and  contem- 
porary witnesses  is  unanimous  and  uncontradicted 
in  favor  of  the  book.  Though  well  known  and  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  churches,  not  a  breath  of  sus- 
picion was  ever  blown  upon  its  reputation,  till  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the  death  of 
the  apostle  to  whom  it  is  ascribed;  and  then  not  con- 
fidently, but  doubtingly,  not  on  any  critical  grounds 
alleged  or  pretended,  but  solely  on  account  of  the 
supposed  difficulty  of  its  interpretation,  the  bad  use 
which  had  been  made  of  it,  and  a  dislike  to  the 
doctrines  which  it  was  imagined  to  contain. 


GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE.  139 


II. » THE    MILLENNIAL    CONTROVERSY. 

The  occasion  on  which  the  genuineness  of  the 
Apocalypse  was  first  called  in  question,  was  the  fol- 
lowing. About  A.  D.  230,  Nepos,  the  pious  and  ac- 
tive bishop  of  Arsinoe,  in  Egypt,  adopted  the  notion 
of  the  thousand  years  personal  reign  of  Christ  on 
earth,  familiarly  called  the  millennium,  and  published 
a  book  entitled,  'Refutation  of  the  Allegorists,'  in 
which  he  amplifies  this  doctrine,  advocating  it  with 
great  zeal,  and  maintaining  it  principally  by  quota- 
tions from  the  Apocalypse.  The  book  was  very 
popular,  and  gained  many  adherents  to  the  doctrine, 
and  so  high  did  their  zeal  run,  that  the  chiliasts  (as 
they  were  called)  or  the  millennialists,  began  to 
secede  from  the  mother  church  at  Alexandria,  which 
opposed  their  notions.  After  the  death  of  Nepos, 
Coracion,  the  pastor  of  a  country  church,  took 
the  lead  in  propagating  the  same  sentiments. 
Dionysius,  the  mild  and  learned  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
desiring  to  put  an  end  to  this  dispute,  and  unwilling 
to  fulminate  ecclesiastical  thunders,  w^hich  he  knew 
could  have  no  other  effect  than  to  irritate,  without 
intimidating  or  subduing,  went  into  the  province  of 
Arsinoe,  where  the  seceders  were  most  numerous, 
and  proposed  an  amicable  conference.  They  met 
him  with  their  leader,  Coracion,  at  their  head, 
and  the  book  of  Nepos  was  carefully  read,  and  its 
arguments  examined.  The  good  bishop  Dionysius, 
w^ith  exemplary  patience,  spent  three  days  in  reason- 
ing with  his  wandering  sheep,  quietly  listened  to 
every  thing  they  had  to  say,  answered  all  their  ob- 


140  GENUINENESS    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE. 

jections;  and  by  the  mildness  of  his  bearing,  and  the 
force  of  his  arguments,  so  completely  satisfied  them 
that  they  had  been  in  the  wrong,  that  Coracion,  in 
the  name  of  all  the  rest,  thanked  him  for  his  kindness 
and  his  instructions,  and  declared  that  they  were  all 
convinced  that  he  was  in  the  right,  and  accordingly 
they  cheerfully  renounced  their  own  opinions,  and 
adopted  his.  A  rare  result  of  theological  controversy! 
(Neander's  Church  History,  Part  i.  p.  1094  ff.  in 
German.) 

III.    THE    APOCALYPSE    THEN    FIRST    QUESTIONED. 

This  took  place  A.  D.  255,  and  Dionysius,  to  se- 
cure the  victory  which  he  had  gained,  wrote  a  work 
on  the  Promises.  Notwithstanding  his  wonderful  suc- 
cess, the  affair  had  given  Dionysius  a  great  deal  of 
trouble,  the  whole  of  which  he  was  disposed  to  attri- 
bute to  the  influence  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  began 
to  doubt  whether  a  book  which  he  supposed  had 
done  so  much  mischief,  could  be  of  divine  authority, 
or  at  any  rate  the  production  of  an  apostle.  Ac- 
cordingly, in  his  work  on  the  Promises,  he  expresses 
himself  to  the  following  effect,  namely,  '  that  some 
before  his  time  had  rejected  the  book,  alleging  that 
it  was  altogether  dark,  entirely  without  sense  and 
reason,  and  ascribed  it  to  the  heretic  Cerinthus;  that 
he,  however,  would  not,  himself,  presume  to  reject 
it,  as  many  of  his  christian  brethren  held  it  in  high 
estimation.  He  acknowledged  that  he  could  not 
understand  the  book,  yet  would  not,  on  that  account, 
reject  it,  but  would  allow  that  it  was  written  by  a 
man  named  John,  who  was  a  holy  and  inspired  man.' 


GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE.  141 

'But  I  would  not,  (says  he)  easily  agree  that  this  was 
the  apostle,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  brother  of  James, 
who  is  the  author  of  the  gospel  and  general  epistles 
which  bear  his  name.     But  I  conjecture  from  the 
general  tenor  of  both,  and  the  form  and  complexion 
of  the  composition,  and  the  execution  of  the  whole 
book,  that  it  is  not  from  him.'    '  That  it  is  a  John  that 
wrote  these  things,  we  must  believe  him,  as  he  says 
it;  but  what  John  it  is,  is  uncertain.'    '  I  am  of  opin- 
ion, that  there  were  many  of  the  same  name  with 
John  the  apostle,  who,  for  their  love  and  admiration 
of  him,  adopted  the  same  epithet.'     '  They  say  that 
there  are  two  monuments  at  Ephesus,  and  that  each 
bears  the  name  of  John^  and  from  the  sentiments 
and  expressions  (of  the  tw^o  works  in  question,  the 
gospel  and  Apocalypse)  as   also   from   their  com- 
position, it  might  be  very  reasonably  conjectured 
that  this  one  is  different  from  that' — and  -thus  he  con- 
tinues through  several  paragraphs — saying  nothing 
directly — denying  nothing  positively,  but  exhibiting 
great  doubt  and  perplexity.   (Eusebius,  Eccl.  Hist. 
Book  vii.  25). 

This  was  the  first  open  attack  ever  made  on  the 
genuineness  of  the  Apocalypse;  and  it  is  plain  from 
the  above  extracts,  that  Dionysius  could  sustain  him- 
self by  no  respectable  authority,  otherwise  he  would 
have  produced  it;  and  the  'some  before  himself  to 
whom  he  alludes  so  generally,  were  probably  those 
who  had  been  engaged  in  the  same  controversy  with 
Nepos,  and  whose  minds  had  received  a  bias  similar 
to  his  own.  It  is  also  plain,  that  he  had  no  historical 
ground  for  his  conjectures  and  suggestions,  but  that 


142  GENUINENESS    OF   THE  .  APOCALYPSE. 

the  testimony  was  all  against  him;  that  he  was  not 
himself  at  all  confident  in  his  own  opinion;  and  that 
his  wish  to  get  rid  of  the  authority  of  this  book,  arose 
entirely  from  his  apprehension  of  its  obscurity,  and 
its  influence  on  the  millennial  controversy.  This  con- 
troversy continued  to  prevail  through  several  centu- 
ries,particularly  in  Asia;  and  wherever  it  prevailed, 
the  anti-millennialists  felt  the  same  anxiety  to  rid  them- 
selves of  the  authority  of  the  Apocalypse.  This 
kept  up  the  controversy  in  regard  to  the  book;  and 
all  who  have  rejected  the  book,  have  been  induced  to 
reject  it,  not  on  historical  testimony  against  it,  or 
the  want  of  such  testimony  in  its  favor,  but  simply 
oa  doctrinal  grounds,  as  may  be  seen  by  every  writer 
on  the  subject,  from  Dionysius,  the  learned  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  down  to  Gen.  Alexander  Smythe,  the 
military  polemic  of  Virginia.  But  no  man  who  in- 
vestigates fairly,  will  suffer  himself  to  be  moved  by 
such  reasonings.  The  only  question  with  him  is, 
what  is  the  testimony?    What  are  the  facts? 

IV.    TJSSTJMONY    IN    FAVOR    OF    THE    BOOK. 

Having  thus  stated  the  circumstances  which  first 
gave  origin  to  the  suspicions,  in  regard  to  the  Apo- 
calypse, and  afterwards  perpetuated  them,  we  will 
now  proceed  to  examine  the  testimony,  and  investi- 
gate the  facts  in  chronological  order. 

1 .  The  writer  himself  testifies  that  he  is  John  the 
apostle  (Rev.  i.  1,4,  9;  xxi.  2;  xxii.  8).  No  other 
John  at  that  period  could  thus  have  spoken  of  him- 
self; and  this  testimony  is  to  be  believed,  unless  there 
is  something  to  contradict  it. 


GENUINENESS    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE.  143 

2.  Those  who  were  personally  acquainted  with  the 
apostle  John,  testify  that  he  was  the  author  of  the 
Apocalypse. 

Irenaeus,  who  was  educated  in  Asia  Minor,  under 
Polycarp  and  Papias  (who  had  studied  theology 
under  John  himself)  established  himself  as  a  mission- 
ary at  Lyons  in  France,  A.  D.  150.  In  his  work 
against  heretics  (Book  v.  30)  speaking  of  Rev.  xiii. 
1 8,  where  some  read  the  number  six  hundred  and  six- 
teen, instead  of  the  usual  reading  six  hundred  and 
sixty  six,  he  says  it  ought  to  be  read  six  hundred  and 
sixty  six, '  this  number  being  placed  in  all  the  ancient, 
most  approved  writings;  they  also  giving  the  same 
testimony  who  had  seen  John  face  to  face'  (Euseb. 
Eccl.  Hist.  V.  8).  Irenaeus  had  been  well  acquaint- 
ed with  these  men  who  had  seen  John,  for  they  were 
his  own  teachers.  No  contrary  contemporary  testi- 
mony can  be  adduced.  Could  the  Apocalypse  have 
been  so  soon  forged,  so  soon  ascribed  to  John,  so 
soon  have  gained  general  credence,  while  John  was 
yet  living,  and  among  his  personal  friends?  How 
could  Polycarp  and  Papias  have  consulted  John  as 
to  the  reading  of  a  passage  in  a  work  which  he 
never  wrote,  and  w^hich  was  falsely  ascribed  to  him, 
without  detecting  its  spuriousness? 

3.  The  testimony  of  all  who  lived  in  the  generation 
immediately  succeeding  the  apostles. 

Justin  Martyr,  born  at  Samaria  about  A.  D.  110, 
in  a  dialogue  with  Trypho,  the  Jew,  says:  'a  certain 
man  among  us  whose  name  was  John,  one  of  the 
apostles  of  Christ,  in  a  revelation  made  to  him,  pro- 
phesied that  those  who  believed  in  our  Christ,  should 


144  GENUINENESS    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE. 

be  a  thousand  years  in  Jerusalem'  (Dial,  with  Trypho, 
c.  71).  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis,  one  of  the  churches 
to  which  the  Apocalypse  was  directed  (Rev.  iii.)  re- 
ceived the  Revelation  as  genuine,  and  wrote  a  com- 
mentary^upon  it  (Euseb.  Hist.  iv.  26.) 

Theophilus,  A.  D.  168,  bishop  of  Antioch,  where 
the  disciples  were  first  called  christians,  also  received 
the  Revelation  as  genuine,  making  use  of  it  as 
of  the  other  scriptures,  in  a  work  of  his  against 
the  heretic  Hermogenes.  (Euseb.  Eccl.  Hist.  iv.  24). 
Apollonius,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, a  presbyter  at  Ephesus,  one  of  the  churches 
to  which  the  Apocalypse  was  directed  (Rev.  ii. 
1),  and  where  the  apostle  John  spent  all  the  lat- 
ter part  of  his  life,  and  where  an  imposition  of  the 
kind  would  be  most  easily  detected,  in  a  work  against 
the  Phrygian  heresy,  quotes  the  Revelation  of  John 
as  testimony  (Euseb.  v.  18).  To  these  may  be  add- 
ed Methodius,  bishop  of  Tyre;  and  there  is  no  coun- 
ter testimony,  no  balancing  of  evidence,  for  the 
evidence  is  all  on  one  side. 

In  Egypt,  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  about  1 90  A. 
D.  gives  the  same  testimony  (Paed.  ii.  12;  Strom. 
vi.  13). 

At  Carthage,  TertuUian,  the  celebrated  christian 
lawyer,  born  A.  D.  160,  says: 

'  Marcion,  indeed,  rejects  the  Revelation,  but  the 
whole  series  of  bishops  from  the  beginning,  will 
stand  for  John  as  the  author  (adv.  Marcion  iv.  5). 

Irenaeus,  a  part  of  whose  testimony  has  already 
been  given,  is  thus  quoted  by  Eusebius  (Eccl.  Hist. 
V.  8).     'Afterwards  John,  the  disciple  of  our  Lord, 


GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE.  146 

the  same  that  lay  upon  his  bosom,  published  the 
gospel,  while  he  was  yet  at  Ephesus  in  Asia.'  'And  a 
little  further  on  he  speaks  of  the  same  John':  "We, 
therefore,"  says  he,  "do  not  venture  to  affirm  any 
thing  with  certainty  respecting  the  name  of  Anti- 
Christ.  For  were  it  necessary  that  his  name  should 
be  clearly  announced  to  the  present  age,  it  would 
have  been  declared  by  him  who  saw  the  Revelation. 
For  it  has  not  been  long  since  it  was  seen,  but  almost 
in  our  own  generation,  about  the  end  of  Domitian's 
reign."  'These  are  what  he  states  respecting  the 
Revelation.'  (Compare  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  edit, 
vol.  2.  p.  170-182). 

Origen,  the  great  christian  teacher  of  this  period, 
and  preceptor  of  Dionysius,says,  that  John  wrote  also 
the  Apocalypse,  in  which  he  was  commanded  to  be 
silent,  and  not  record  the  voice  of  the  seven  thunders: 
thus  referring  to  one  of  the  most  striking  passages  of 
the  book.  (Euseb.  Eccl.  Hist.  vi.  25). 

Indeed,  the  testimony,  till  we  come  to  Dionysius, 
is  unanimous,  and  we  have  already  seen  w^hat  induc- 
ed him  to  call  in  question  the  authority  of  the  book, 
and  how  doubtingly  and  lamely  he  apologizes  for  so 
doing. 

Eusebius,  the  celebrated  ecclesiastical  historian  in 
the  reign  of  Constantine,  who  was  inclined  to  follow 
the  opinion  of  Dionysius,  has  the  following  sentences 
in  reference  to  this  topic: 

'  The  Apocalypse  of  John  may,  if  it  be  thougbl 
proper,  be  classed  with  the  undisputed  books.' 

'  We  may  also  class  the  Apocalypse  of  John  among 


13 


146  GENUINENESS    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE. 

the  disputed  books,  which  some,  as  I  have  stated, 
reject,  and  others  class  with  the  undisputed  books.' 

'Respecting  the  Apocalypse,  many  are  fluctuating 
in  their  opinion.'  (Eccl.  Hist.  iii.  24,  25). 

Jerome,  the  great  biblical  scholar  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, in  his  epistle  to  Dardanus,  remarks,  that  con- 
trary to  the  prevailing  custom  of  the  Greek  church 
in  that  age,  he  received  the  Apocalypse,  following 
the  authority  of  the  ancient  writers;  thus  showing  the 
fact,  that  the  rejection  of  the  Apocalypse  was 
comparatively  recent,  and  uncountenanced  by  an- 
cient testimony.  (Compare  Eichhorn  on  Apocalypse, 
Praef.  p.  xlv.  xlvi). 

Other  testimony  of  the  same  kind  might  be  adduc- 
ed; but  this,  I  trust,  is  sufficient  to  establish  the  point 
in  question:  namely,  that  as  far  as  direct  testimony 
goes,  no  ancient  book  can  lay  claim  to  more  than 
what  is  found  in  favor  of  the  Revelation  of  John. 

V.     OBJECTIONS    TO    THE     APOCALYPSE. 

Let  us  turn  our  attention  to  the  objections  to  its 
authenticity,  which  some  regard  of  sufficient  weight 
to  counterbalance  the  whole  force  of  this  concurrent 
and  uncontradicted  testimony  of  the  ancients. 

1.  It  was  conjectured  by  Dionysius,  as  you  have 
already  seen,  that  the  Apocalypse  was  written,  not 
by  John  the  apostle,  but  by  a  certain  presbyter  named 
John,  who  lived  at  Ephesus  about  the  same  time. 

To  this,  we  reply,  1st.  It  is  directly  contrary  to  all 
contemporary  and  early  testimony.  The  writers  of 
the  first  age  knew  of  no  such  presbyter  John,  but 
ascribed  the  Apocalypse  to  John  the  apostle.     2d. 


GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE.  147 

The  very  existence  of  any  such  John  the  presbyter, 
as  a  different  person  from  John  the  apostle,  is  very 
problematical.  He  makes  no  figure  in  ecclesiastical 
history,  and  v^^e  are  strongly  tempted  to  believe,  that 
he  vi^as  manufactured  for  the  occasion  by  those  who 
w^ished  to  get  rid  of  the  apostolic  authority  of  the 
Apocalypse. 

The  apostle  John  styles  himself  the  elder  or  pres- 
byter in  the  first  verse  of  his  second  and  third  epis- 
tles, and  this  might  first  have  given  rise  to  the  story 
of  tv^^o  Johns  at  Ephesus.  Eusebius  infers  and 
stoutly  argues  in  favor  of  a  presbyter  John,  distinct 
from  the  apostle,  from  the  fact  that  the  name  of  John 
tw^ice  occurs  in  the  follovi^ing  passage  of  Papias,  in 
wrhich  he  says  that  he  made  it  a  point  to  inquire 
'what  was  said  by  Thomas,  James,  John,  Matthew, 
or  any  other  of  the  disciples  of  our  Lord.  What 
was  said  by  Aristion,  and  the  presbyter  John,  disci- 
ple of  our  Lord'  (Euseb.  iii.  39).  Whether  the  pres- 
byter John  here  mentioned,  be  th^  same  with  John 
the  apostle,  or  John  whose  surname  was  Mark  (Acts 
xii.  25),  or  some  other  John,  it  certainly  cannot 
prove,  in  direct  opposition  to  all  testimony,  that  John 
the  apostle  did  not  write  the  Apocalypse. 

2.  Another  objection  of  Dionysius,  and  one  which 
has  been  often  repeated  since,  is,  that  John's  name  is 
affixed  to  the  Apocalypse,  which  is  not  the  case  with 
his  gospel  or  first  epistle.  This  is  a  very  singular 
argument;  as  much  as  to  say,  if  a  man  publishes  one 
work  anonymously,  and  another  with  his  name  to  it, 
we  are  to  reject  the  one  which  bears  his  name,  be- 
cause the  other  is  anonymous. 


148  GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE. 

Again:  though  the  apostle  John  does  not  describe 
himself  by  name,  to  be  the  writer  of  the  gospel,  yet 
he  does  declare  himself  to  be  the  author  in  terms 
so  express,  that  he  well  knew  any  one  would  under- 
stand them  (John  xxi.  24  compared  with  verse  20» 
and  xiii.  23-25,  and  xix.  35). 

The  nature  of  the  Apocalypse,  it  being  prophecy 
in  the  most  sublime  style  of  inspiration,  required  a 
more  distinct  enunciation  of  its  author  to  give  it  au- 
thority, than  the  plain  narrative  of  the  gospeL  This 
is  according  to  the  analogy  of  other  prophecies^ 
Not  a  single  prophecy  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament,, 
which  is  not  accompanied  by  the  name  of  the  writer* 
John  w^hile  prophesying,  of  course,  adopted  the 
prophetic  mode  of  writing. 

3..  The  style  and  language  of  the  Apocalypse  is 
very  different  from  that  of  the  gospel  and  epistles* 
This  is  true,  and  the  style  ought  to  be  different;  for 
the  whole  subject  and  the  whole  mode  of  treating  it 
is  entirely  different.  Style  varies  with  the  varieties 
of  the  subject.  Is  the  genuineness  of  Milton's  Para- 
dise Lost  to  be  disputed,  because  it  is  not  written  in 
the  same  style  with  his  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of 
Divorce?  Or  Newton's  works  on  Chronology  and 
the  Bible,  because  they  were  not  in  the  style  of  his 
Principia?  There  is,  however,  a  striking  resemblance 
in  some  particulars,  between  the  style  of  the  Apo-^ 
calypse  and  that  of  the  gospel.  There  is  the  same 
depth  and  peculiarity  of  feeling  in  both. 

4.  It  is  objected  that  the  Greek  of  the  Apocalypse 
is  much  less  pure  and  more  largely  tinctured  with 
Hebrew  idioms  than  that  of  the  gospel  or  epistles^ 


GENUINENESS    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE.  149 

This  is  true,  and  for  the  best  of  reasons.  The  Apo- 
calypse was  written  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  earlier 
than  the  gospel  or  epistles,  and  before  the  writer 
had  become  so  familiar  with  the  Greek  language  as 
he  was  afterwards.  Again,  almost  every  sentence 
in  the  Apocalypse  is  written  with  particular  refer- 
ence to  some  passage  of  the  Old  Testament  prophe- 
cies, and  of  course  it  takes  a  Hebrew  coloring.  We 
are  led  to  think  that  the  apostle  had  no  book  with 
him  in  his  exile  and  solitude  but  his  Hebrew  bible; 
that  this  was  his  constant  meditation,  and  the  whole 
train  of  his  thoughts  was  shaped  and  modified  by  its 
language  and  imagery. 

5.  It  is  said  that  the  Apocalypse  is  not  included 
in  the  most  ancient  Syrian  translation.  It  is  true, 
that  some  of  the  manuscripts  of  the  Syrian  transla- 
tion which  have  been  brought  to  Europe,  do  not 
contain  this  book.  But  that  the  book  was  well 
known  and  acknowledged  as  genuine  in  the  Syrian 
churches,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  in  the  second 
century  it  was  quoted  as  scripture  by  Theophilus 
bishop  of  Antioch.  In  the  early  par.t  of  the  third 
century  its  genuineness  was  vindicated  against  the 
attacks  of  Caius  by  Hippoly  tus,  who  was  held  in  high 
repute  by  the  Syrians;  and  in  the  fourth  century  it 
is  quoted  as  the  work  of  John,  by  the  Syrian  saint, 
Ephraim.  (Works  of  Ephr.  t.  ii.  p.  332;  iii.  616: 
and  in  Greek,  ii.  252;  iii.  52). 

The  Syrian  manuscripts  which  do  not  contain  the 
books,  were  probably  written  after  the  millennial  con- 
troversy had  made  the  Revelation  distasteful  to  a 
powerful  party  in  the  church. 
13* 


450  GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSEr 

6.  But  the  great,  and  in  fact,  the  only  objection'' 
against  the  Revelation,  which  has  had  any  real  im- 
portance, has  always  been  that  which  was  at  first 
stated  by  Dionysius,  namely,  that  it  was  very  obscure^ 
without  sense  and  reason,  as  Dionysius  says,  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  be  interpreted;  and  the  great  store- 
house from  which  heretics  and  fanatics  have  drawn 
their  materials  to  trouble  the  church  with.  The 
want  of  '  sense  and  reason'  belongs  to  the  interpre- 
ters, and  not  to  the  book.  Obscurity,  to  a  certain 
extent,  is  an  attribute  of  all  prophecy,  and  heretics 
and  fanatics,  always  lay  hold  on  the  most  highly  fig- 
urative language,  because  this  is  the  most  easily  per- 
verted. Even  allowing  the  objection  to  be  just  as  it 
is  stated,  it  has  but  little  to  do  with  the  question  of 
authorship,  which  is  a  question  of  fact,  to  be  settled 
by  the  appropriate  evidence;  and  no  one  has  ever 
shown,  or  done  any  thing  towards  showing,  that 
there  is  any  thing  in  the  Revelation  so  repugnant  to 
the  known  character  of  John,  that  he  cannot  reason- 
ably be  supposed  the  author  of  it.  A  writer  is  not 
accountable  for  the  stupidity  of  his  commentators, 
nor  for  the  ignorance  or  wilful  abuse,  which  weak 
men  or  bad  men  may  make  of  his  writings,  I  hope 
that  the  next  chapter  will  show,  that  the  darkness, 
the  absurdities,  the  mysticism,  and  fanaticism,  which 
have  been  attributed  to  the  Apocalypse,  no  more 
belong  to  it,  than  dinginess  belongs  to  the  clear  blue 
sky,  when  it  happens  to  be  observed  through  a  dingy 
glass. 

I  have  been  thus  particular  in  stating  the  whole 
argument,  in  respect  to  the  genuineness  of  the  Reve- 


GENUINENESS    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE.  151 

lation,  for  the  purpose  of  exposing  the  recklessness 
with  which  half-learned  and  flippant  criticism  fre- 
quently makes  assertions,  and  the  easy  credulity 
with  which  they  are  believed.  If  the  facts  are  not 
as  I  have  stated  them,  let  the  contrary  be  shown.  I 
know  that  the  contrary  cannot  be  shown.  The  book 
has  been  grossly  abused,  and  because  abused,  it  has 
come  to  be  suspected — and  by  many  despised.  The 
WTiter  of  the  book  seemed  to  anticipate  this  from  the 
ever  active  depravity  of  man,  and  therefore,  sol- 
emnly pronounces  a  curse  on  any  one  who  should 
add  to  or  take  from  the  book  (Rev.  xxii.  18,  19). 
How  many  commentators  will  fall  under  this  curse, 
particularly  the  curse  for  adding! 

In  concluding  this  chapter  I  would  say  to  my  read- 
ers, take  the  book  of  Revelation,  and  read  it  once 
through  without  reference  to  any  thing  which  you 
have  ever  heard  said  about  it,  and  without  attempting- 
to  apply  its  predictions  to  any  of  the  events  of  histo- 
ry, with  which  you  are  familiar.  Read  it  simply  for 
the  sake  of  enjoying  it ;  read  it  as  a  glowing  description 
of  a  series  of  magnificent  pictures  which  were  pass- 
ing before  the  eye  of  the  writer;  read  it  for  the  sake 
of  throwing  your  soul  into  its  sublime  acts  of  adora- 
tion of  the  Great  Supreme;  read  it  for  the  sake  of 
becoming  endued  with  its  spirit,  without  troubling 
yourselves,  as  to  the  historical  application  of  its  sym- 
bols; and  remember,  while  you  read,  that  it  is  an 
Oriental,  an  Asiatic,  and  a  Hebrew  book.  (On  the 
subject  of  this  chapter,  compare  particularly  the 
Introductions  of  Michaelis,  Hug,  and  Home). 


CHAPTER    NINTH. 


INTERPRETATION    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE. 


I.    GENERAL    DESIGN    OF    THE    BOOK. 

When  we  enter  on  the  investigation  of  a  much 
disputed  subject,  it  is  very  desirable  to  find  some 
common  ground  on  which  all  can  agree  to  stand,  and 
from  which  we  may  take  our  departure.  Such  a 
common  ground  w^e  have,  even  in  reference  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse. 

Almost  all  interpreters  agree  substantially  in  this: 
namely,  that  it  is  the  general  object  of  this  book  to 
excite  and  encourage  christians  in  times  of  depres- 
sion and  persecution,  by  disclosing  to  them  the  glo- 
ries and  the  terrors  of  the  invisible  world;  to  show 
the  dreadfulness  of  the  punishments  which  await  the 
enemies  of  religion,  and  the  nearness  and  delight  of 
the  rewards  which  await  its  friends;  and  to  assure 
those  who  are  exposing  themselves  to  suffering  in  the 
cause  of  Christ,  of  the  ultimate  and  complete  triumph 
of  this  cause  over  every  form  of  hostility,  however 
malignant  and  powerful.  This  was  its  original  and 
acknowledged  purpose,  and  this  purpose  it  has  abun- 
dantly answered  in  every  age  of  the  church,  notwith- 


INTERPRETATION    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE.  153 

Standing  the  numerous  abuses  to  which  it  has  been 
subjected.  And  this  is  an  instance  of  the  care 
which  God  takes  to  secure  the  original  end,  for  which 
his  institutions  are  designed.  Notwithstanding  all 
the  abuses  of  this  book,  the  church  in  times  of  dis- 
tress has  alw^ays  used  it,  as  it  was  designed  to  be 
used,  for  comfort  and  encouragement. 

Diversity  of  opinion  has  arisen  in  making  the  ap- 
plication of  its  symbolic  language,  to  particular 
events  of  subsequent  history;  and  the  diversity  has 
been  as  endless  as  the  varieties  of  fancy  and  passion 
among  men;  and  the  difficulty  and  obscurity  which 
envelope  the  book,  arise  from  its  being  read  with  the 
idea  that  each  of  its  symbols  must  be  appropriated 
to  some  one  corresponding  event  of  history;  and 
that  the  book  is  valuable  only  as  a  collection  of  pre- 
dictions, which  have  had,  or  are  to  have,  punctual 
and  literal  accomplishment. 

That  the  book  contains  much  of  prophecy,  there 
can  be  no  doubt;  but  I  apprehend  that  the  idea  of 
prophecy  as  applied  to  the  Revelation  is  generally 
too  literal  and  narrow ;  that  the  constant  and  anxious 
search  for  the  fulfilment  of  predictions  has  often  pre- 
vented readers  from  seeing  that  the  book  contains 
much,  of  the  highest  value  to  the  christian,  which  is 
not  prophecy. 

It  is  desirable  often  to  read  the  book,  and  leave 
the  prophetic  application  of  its  symbols  entirely  out 
of  view,  and  look  at  the  passages  just  as  they  stand — 
living  pictures  of  eternal  realities,  which  are  invisi- 
ble to  mortal  eyes — and  endeavor,  at  the  same  time, 
to  unfold  their  more  striking  peculiarities,  and  to 


154  INTERPRETATION    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE. 

trace  their  connection  with  the  prophetic  poetry  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

II.  PLAN  AND  CONTENTS  OP  THE  BOOK. 

The  Apocalypse  is  remarkable  for  the  complete- 
ness and  consistency  of  its  plan,  and  the  accuracy 
and  care  with  which  this  plan  is  filled  out  in  the  exe- 
cution of  the  work.  One  distinguished  writer  (Eich- 
horn)  has  even  regarded  it  as  a  drama,  and  as  such, 
has  divided  it  into  the  requisite  number  of  acts  and 
scenes,  which,  though  undoubtedly  foreign  to  the 
intention  of  the  writer,  correspond  exactly  to  the 
contents  of  the  book.  The  book  is  entirely  an  Asiatic 
production  and  corresponds  to  the  Asiatic  taste ;  and 
its  symbolical  language  is  derived  principally  from 
the  Old  Testament  prophecies,  modified  and  or- 
namented according  to  the  genius  and  purposes 
of  the  writer.  I  am  aware  of  the  difliculty  of  at- 
tempting a  satisfactory  outline  of  the  plan  and  con- 
tents of  such  a  work;  but  some  outline  is  necessary 
in  order  to  show  the  ground  on  which  we  make  the 
prophetic  application  of  the  symbols. 

I.  Vision  of  the  Redeemer  in  the  isle  of  Patmos, 
with  seven  epistles  to  the  seven  Asiatic  churches 

(i-iii). 

II.  Scene  changes  to  heaven.  Vision  of  the  throne 
of  God,  with  the  surrounding  worshippers — the  book 
with  seven  seals — the  Lamb,  and  preparation  for  the 
great  events  to  follow,  by  the  opening  of'  the  first 
six  seals  (iv-vii). 

III.  The  seventh  seal  opened — all  heaven  is  silent 
— seven  angels  appear  with  seven  trumpets,  and  by 


INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE.      155 

seven  blasts  of  the  trumpets,  the  great  city  spiritually 
called  Sodom  and  Egypt  is  destroyed  (viii-xi). 

IV.  Vision  of  the  woman  and  her  child,  for  whose 
destruction  a  dragon  is  watching  (xii). 

V.  Vision  of  the  monster  rising  out  of  the  sea — 
of  the  Lamb,  with  his  elect,  on  mount  Zion — the 
proclamation  of  the  three  angels,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  monster  by  the  seven  angels  pouring  out  seven 
vials  (xiii-xvi). 

VI.  Vision  of  a  woman  on  a  scarlet  colored  beast, 
occupying  the  place  of  the  marine  monster — her  city, 
Babylon,  destroyed — lamentation  on  earth — triumph 
and  exultation  in  heaven  (xviii-xix.  10). 

VII.  Vision  of  the  victorious  Word,  the  King  of 
kings,  with  new  conflicts  and  final  success  (xix. 
11-21). 

VIII.  Satan  bound — a  time  of  peace — new  strug- 
gles, and  a  complete  and  final  victory,  and  the  sub- 
sequent judgment  (xx). 

IX.  Vision  of  the  New  Jerusalem  descending  from 
heaven,  and  the  glories  of  the  heavenly  world  (xxi.- 
xxii.  5). 

X.  Closing  address  of  the  angel  to  the  writer,  and 
of  the  writer  to  the  reader  (xxii.  6-21.) 

The  above  is  a  brief  view  of  the  principal  divisions 
and  the  contents  of  the  book  as  I  understand  it.  The 
following  more  extended  analysis  is  drawn  up  ac- 
cording to  the  views  of  professor  Hug,  in  his  Intro- 
duction to  the  New  Testament  (vol.  ii.  p.  598  ff,  in 
German). 


156  INTERPRETATION    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE. 

Part  I. 

In  exile  on  the  island  of  Patmos,  while  worship- 
ing on  the  Lord's  day,  the  apostle  John,  rapt  into 
prophetic  ecstacy,  sees  a  human  form,  resplendent 
with  heavenly  glory,  walking  among  seven  golden 
candlesticks.  It  is  the  Lord,  and  he  directs  the  be- 
loved disciple  to  write  seven  epistles  to  the  seven 
Asiatic  churches,  who  are  represented  by  the  seven 
candlesticks,  and  watched  over  by  seven  angels, 
represented  by  seven  stars  glittering  upon  his  fight 
hand.  These  epistles  commend  the  virtues  and  re- 
buke the  failings  of  the  seven  churches — exhort  some 
to  perseverance  and  others  to  repentance  (i.-iii). 
Part  II. 

This  happened  on  earth — but  the  door  of  heaven 
is  now  thrown  open,  and  a  herald  calls  on  John  to 
ascend.  He  there  sees  God  upon  a  throne,  surround- 
ed with  the  glories  of  heaven,  and  about  him  four 
and  twenty  of  his  chosen  upon  as  many  thrones. 
He  holds  in  his  hands  a  scroll  sealed  with  seven  seals, 
and  no  created  being  in  the  universe  has  power  to 
break  them  or  read  the  book.  But  a  lamb  is  seen  in 
the  midst  of  the  throne,  and  amid  the  hymns  and 
acclamations  of  the  world  of  spirits  he  rises  to  open 
the  seals  (iv.-v). 

When  the  first  seal  is  broken,  a  hero  is  seen  with 
the  insignia  of  victory;  when  the  second  is  broken, 
peace  departs  from  the  earth;  at  the  third,  famine 
appears;  at  the  fourth,  death  and  his  ghastly  retinue. 
At  the  opening  of  the  fifth  seal,  the  blood  of  the 
martyrs  cries  out  for  vengeance;  at  the  sixth,  the 
sun  and  moon  are   darkened,   the   stars   fall  from 


INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE.      157 

heaven,  fear  and  distress  are  universal.  Four  angels 
hold  back  the  storms,  till  an  angel,  who  comes  from 
the  east,  has  affixed  the  seal  of  the  living  God  to 
twelve  thousand  out  of  every  one  of  the  Israelitish 
tribes,  who  are  to  be  delivered  from  the  impending 
calamities.  About  the  throne  of  God  there  is  now 
seen  a  multitude  from  all  nations,  in  white  robes  with 
palm  branches  in  their  hands,  who  have  escaped  from 
the  abodes  of  misery  and  persecution,  and  are  now 
shouting  the  praises  of  God,  their  deliverer  (vi.-vii). 

The  seventh  seal  is  opened — all  heaven  is  silent  in 
anxious  suspense — and  seven  angels  appear  with 
seven  trumpets.  The  prayers  of  the  saints  lie  upon 
the  altar  before  God,  and  ascend  up  to  him  in  a  cloud 
of  incense  (viii.  1-6). 

Part.  III. 

The  first  of  the  seven  angels  sounds  his  trumpet, 
and  fire,  hail,  and  blood  fall  to  the  earth.  At  the 
sound  of  the  second  trumpet,  a  burning  mountain 
falls  into  the  sea,  and  the  third  part  of  its  waters  be- 
come blood.  The  third  trumpet  sounds,  and  a  spark- 
ling star  is  thrown  upon  the  third  part  of  the  rivers 
and  springs,  and  the  waters  are  embittered  by  it. 
The  fourth  trumpet  sounds,  and  a  third  part  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  are  darkened.  An  eagle  [angel] 
flies  through  heaven,  and  cries  'wo,  wo,  wo  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.'  The  blast  of  the  fifth 
trumpet  is  heard,  and  a  star  with  the  key  of  the 
abyss  descends  from  heaven.  The  bottomless  pit  is 
opened,  and  destructive  insects  fly  from  it  in  every 
direction. 


158  INTERPRETATION    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE. 

At  the  sound  of  the  sixth  trumpet,  the  four  angels 
bound  at  the  Euphrates  are  let  loose,  and  the  third 
part  of  men  perish  in  war;  but  the  survivors  harden 
themselves  in  their  sins  and  refuse  to  repent  (viii.-ix.) 

An  angel  of  colossal  stature  shouts  with  a  voice  of 
seven  thunders,  and  reaches  to  John  a  scroll  which 
he  is  directed  to  swallow.  He  swallows  it  and  be- 
gins to  prophesy.  He  measures  the  nave  of  the 
temple,  but  leaves  the  outer  court  and  the  city  to  be 
trampelled  upon  by  the  enemy.  Two  martyrs,  who 
are  mentioned  with  loud  eulogies,  are  directed  to 
prophesy,  and  they  are  slain  in  the  allegorical  Sodom 
— the  tenth  part  of  the  city  falls  by  an  earthquake — 
seven  thousand  men  are  slain. 

The  seventh  trumpet  sounds,  and  the  four  and 
twenty  elders  fall  down  before  the  throne  of  God, 
and  sing  a  song  of  victory  (x.-xi.) 
Part  IV. 

A  woman  is  now  seen  in  heaven,  clothed  with  the 
sun,  the  moon  under  her  feet,  and  upon  her  head  a 
diadem  of  stars,  in  the  pains  of  childbirth.  A  dragon 
prowls  before  her  to  destroy  her  infant  child,  who  is 
destined  to  rule  all  nations;  but  Michael  hurls  the 
dragon  to  the  earth,  and  heaven  again  resounds  with 
the  shouts  of  victory.  He  still  persecutes  the  wo- 
man; but  she  escapes  to  a  distant  solitude  where  her 
child  is  nurtured  in  safety.  The  foiled  dragon  now 
wages  war  with  the  woman's  friends  (xii.-xiii). 
Part  V. 

In  the  mean  time  a  monster  has  arisen  out  of  the 
sea,  with  seven  heads,  ten  horns,  and  ten  royal  dia- 
dems.   He  wages  war  with  the  saints;  the  nations 


INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE.      159 

do  him  homage.  Another  monster  arises  from  the 
earth  with  two  horns,  and  speaks  like* a  dragon.  He 
subjects  men  to  the  power  of  the  marine  monster, 
causes  an  image  of  him  to  be  made,  and  compels  the 
world  to  worship  it.  He  then  marks  the  worshippers 
with  a  peculiar  mark.  The  marine  monster  has  the 
number  666  (xiii). 

The  Lamb  is  now  seen  standing  on  mount  Sion, 
surrounded  by  the  faithful,  bearing  the  name  of  God 
in  their  foreheads,  and  singing  praises  to  their  Re- 
deemer (xiv.  1-5). 

Three  angels  appear  in  heaven.  One  carries  the 
everlasting  gospel;  the  second  cries:  '  Babylon  is  fal- 
len'; and  the  third  proclaims  vengeance  on  those  who 
have  worshipped  the  image  of  the  beast.  Upon  a 
cloud  is  seen  a  human  figure  with  a  sickle  in  his  hand, 
and  an  angel  with  another  sickle — one  gathers  the  har- 
vest, the  other  the  vintage  (xiv). 
Part  VI. 

Seven  angels  with  seven  vials  now  come  out  of  the 
tabernacle  of  God,  which  is  enveloped  in  a  thick 
cloud  of  vapor.  The  first  angel  pours  out  his  vial, 
and  'a  noisome  and  grievous  sore'  falls  upon  the 
worshippers  of  the  beast.  The  second  vial  is  emp- 
tied upon  the  sea,  and  it  is*  curdled  with  clotted 
blood.  The  third  is  poured  upon  the  rivers  and  wells, 
which  immediately  flow  with  blood.  The  fourth  is 
poured  upon  the  sun,  and  men  are  scorched  with 
burning  heat;  the  fifth  is  emptied  on  the  throne  of 
the  beast,  and  it  is  wrapt  in  darkness.  The  sixth 
angel  pours  his  vial  on  the  Euphrates,  and  its  foun- 
tains are  sealed  up.     The  seventh  empties  his  into 


160  INTERPRETATION    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE. 

the  air,  and  a  voice  sounds  from  the  sanctuary  of 
God  in  heaven,  '  It  is  done.'  All  nature  is  in  com- 
motion— every  thing  frightful  and  desolating  com- 
bines to  complete  the  work  of  v^^o  (xvi). 

One  of  the  seven  angels  now  conducts  John  into 
a  wilderness,  and  shows  him  a  woman  sitting  upon  a 
scarlet  beast  with  seven  heads  and  ten  horns.  She 
has  the  name  of  Babylon  upon  her  forehead,  is  drunk 
with  the  blood  of  saints,  and  seduces  the  nations  to 
licentiousness  (xvii). 

Another  angel  descends  from  heaven,  proclaims 
the  destruction  of  Babylon,  and  summons  the  people 
to  take  vengeance.  On  earth  the  voice  of  lamenta- 
tion for  Babylon  is  heard,  but  heaven  resounds  with 
hallelujahs  (xviii.-xix.) 

Part  VII. 

The  conqueror  now  appears  on  a  white  horse,  his 
name  is  engraved  upon  his  armor — he  is  the  king  of 
kings — the  Word  of  God.  An  angel  standing  in  the 
sun  beckons  the  fowls  of  heaven  to  the  battle-field, 
where  the  corpses  of  princes  and  beasts  are  lying  in 
great  numbers;  for  their  last  efforts  at  resistance 
had  failed  (xix). 

Meanwhile  an  angel  descends  from  heaven  with 
the  key  of  the  abyss,  and  chains  the  hostile  dragon 
and  confines  him  in  that  prison  for  a  thousand  years, 
during  which  time  the  saints  reign  with  Jesus.  Af- 
ter this  respite  the  battle  is  resumed,  and  distant  na- 
tions are  called  into  the  field.  But  in  vain;  the  dra- 
gon is  again  defeated,  and  consigned  to  the  torture  of 
eternal  fire.  The  judge  ascends  his  throne — the 
universe  trembles  with  agitation — the  book  of  life  is 


INTERPRETATION    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE.  161 

unrolled — the  graves  give  up  their  dead — the  final 
sentence  is  pronounced  (xx). 

New  heavens  and  a  new  earth  take  the  place  of 
the  old;  a  new  Jerusalem  ornamented  like  a  bride 
descends  from  heaven;  its  walls,  its  towers,  its  royal 
palace  adorned  with  the  insignia  of  Christianity. 
There  is  comfort,  quiet,  peace,  eternal  light,  the  king- 
dom of  God  (xxi.-xxii.  6). 

The  closing  address  of  John  to  the  reader  (xxii). 

In  studying  the  book,  the  reader  will  notice  the 
frequent  use  of  the  number  seven.  Throughout  the 
bible,  seven  is  a  sacred  number.  The  seventh  day  was 
the  Sabbath;  the  seventh  year,  sabbatical  year;  seven 
times  seventh,  or  forty  ninth  year,  grand  sabbatical 
year.  The  feasts  continued  seven  days;  seven  ani- 
mals w^ere  sacrificed;  seven  lamps  to  the  candlestick; 
seven  priests  with  seven  trumpets  went  around  Jeri- 
cho seven  days,  and  on  the  seventh,  seven  times 
seven.  So  in  the  Apocalypse,  there  are  seven 
churches,  seven  candlesticks,  seven  spirits,  seven 
stars,  seven  seals,  seven  trumpets,  seven  thunders, 
seven  vials,  seven  plagues,  seven  angels,  &:c. 

Iir.     PROPHETIC    APPLICATION    OF    THE    BOOK. 

This  whole  book,  with  its  names  and  imagery,  is 
manifestly  symbolical.  Thus  in  ii.  6,  14,  20,  Nicolai- 
tans  or  Balaamites  designate  selfish  and  money-lov- 
ing ecclesiastics;  Jezebel,  a  noisy,  licentious  woman, 
&c. 

In  the  book,  two  cities  are  represented  as  being 
destroyed,  and  a  third  is  established  on  their  ruins. 
14* 


162  INTERPRETATION    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE. 

The  first,  Sodom,  is  clearly  pointed  out  to  be* 
Jerusalem,  xi,  1,  2,  8,  by  the  mention  of  the  temple^ 
and  the  holy  city — 'where  also  our  Lord  was  cruci- 
fied.' The  seven  trumpets,  therefore,  and  chapters 
viii.-ix.  clearly  refer  to  Jerusalem,  or  Jewish  institu- 
tions.    This  we  are  sure  of  on  critical  grounds. 

The  second  city,  Babylon,  is  clearly  pointed  out  to 
be  Rome  (xiii.  18;  xvii.  9,  18).  Six  hundred  and 
sixty  six  (666)  is  the  sum  of  the  numerals  in  the 
Greek  word,  A«7i»r9s  {lateinos)  meaning  Roman;  and 
the  city  on  seven  hills,  which  then  ruled  over  the 
kings  of  the  earth,'  could  be  no  other  than  Rome. 
The  seven  vials,  therefore,  and  chapters  xiii.-xviii, 
plainly  refer  to  Rome,  or  Roman  institutions.  This, 
also,  we  are  sure  of  on  critical  grounds.  The  third 
city,  established  on  the  ruins  of  the  two  former,  is 
the  New  Jerusalem,  which  descends  from  God  out  of 
heaven  (xxi.  2).  From  this  fact,  we  are  also  sure  on 
critical  grounds,  that  this  third  city  must  be  sym- 
bolical, and  not  literal;  and  we  are  led  to  infer  that 
the  other  two  also  are  symbolical,  and  not  literal. 

The  circumstances  in  which  the  author  wrote,  the 
purpose  for  which  he  wrote,  and  the  whole  structure 
of  the  work  show,  that  the  three  cities  are  symbolical 
of  the  three  religions  then  contending  for  supremacy; 
the  first  two  of  which  were  united  against  the  last, 
that  is.  Paganism  and  Judaism  were  united  against 
Christianity. 

The  general  subject  of  the  prophecy,  then,  is  the 
destruction  of  the  two  great  antagonist  powers  of 
Christianity,  persecuting  Judaism  and  persecuting 
Paganism,  and  the  triumph,  and  finally  complete 


INTERPRETATION    OF   THE    APOCALYPSE.  163 

establishment  of  the  religion  of  Christ  over  the  whole 
world. 

In  accordance  with  the  genius  of  prophecy,  a  full 
picture  is  given  of  the  present  condition  of  things, 
and  the  most  prominent  and  characteristic  points  of 
the  future,  are  hastily,  but  clearly  sketched.  Accord- 
ing to  this  view,  I  would  arrange  the  book  in  reference 
to  its  prophetic  application,  as  follows: 

I.  Introduction,  the  seven  epistles  to  the  seven 
churches  (i.-iii). 

II.  Preparation  for  the  great  events  to  follow — 
seven  seals  (iv.-vii). 

III.  Sodom  or  Jerusalem,  representing  Judaism, 
destroyed  by  a  series  of  calamities — seven  trumpets, 
(viii.-xi). 

IV.  Birth  of  Christianity,  the  child  of  uncorrupted 
Judaism,  and  preservation  of  the  infant  from  destruc- 
tion, by  the  special  interposition  of  Heaven  (xii). 

V.  Babylon  or  Rome,  (in  its  first  form  as  a  marine 
monster)  persecuting  Paganism,  destroyed  by  a  series 
of  calamities — seven  vials  (xiii.-xvi). 

In  this  series,  there  seems  to  be  a  distinct  allusion 
to  Mohamedanism,  a  compound  of  Judaism  and  Pa- 
ganism, which,  under  the  Saracenic  power,  overthrew 
Christianity  in  the  East,  and  for  a  long  time  held  it 
in  check  and  nearly  destroyed  it  in  Europe  (xvi. 
12-21). 

VI.  Babylon  in  another  form;  the  Papal  despotism, 
a  compound  of  Paganism  and  Christianity.  Babylon 
finally  and  completely  destroyed;  conflicts  and  vic- 
tories succeeding  the  reformation  (xvii.-xix). 


164      INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE. 

VII.  The  millennium;  another  hostile  power  still 
future;  the  final  victory  and  the  last  judgment  (xv.) 

VIII.  Final  and  complete  triumph  of  Christianity, 
and  the  consummation  of  its  glory  in  the  heavenly 
world  (xxi.-xxii). 

The  symbols  of  this  book  are  not  to  be  forced  to 
an  application  to  particular  historical  events,  except- 
ing as  these  events  are  the  causes  or  the  consequences 
of  great  religious  changes.  Classes  of  events,  ar- 
ranged according  to  their  religious  influence  on  man, 
are  represented  by  the  symbols,  rather  than  particu- 
lar historical  circumstances;  and  much  is  added  for 
the  ornamenting  and  completing  of  the  picture.  The 
book  is  neither  a  civil  nor  an  ecclesiastical  history  of 
Europe  or  Asia,  but  a  book  of  excitement  and  en- 
couragement and  assurance  of  final  success,  to  those 
who  are  laboring  to  advance  the  cause  of  truth  and 
righteousness  in  opposition  to  error  and  sin. 

This  mode  of  interpretation  corresponds  to  the 
times  and  circumstances  in  which  the  book  was 
written,  fulfils  all  the  conditions  of  its  language,  ac- 
cords with  the  analogy  of  prophecy,  elicits  a  full  and 
consistent  meaning,  and  is  liable  to  no  critical  ob- 
jections. This  mode  of  interpretation  rests  on  crit- 
ical grounds,  and  not  on  theological  conjecture;  it 
enables  us  to  understand  the  book  strictly  by  the 
common  laws  of  interpretation,  without  an  applica- 
tion of  its  symbols  to  any  events  of  history,  which 
may  happen  to  strike  the  fancy  or  suit  the  present 
purposes  of  the  interpreter;  a  practice  which  more 
than  any  thing  else  has  contributed  to  make  the  Apo- 
calypse, to  the  majority  of  readers,  a  book  of  riddles 


INTERPRETATION    OF    THE    APOCALYPSE.  165 

and  inexplicable  enigmas.  Let  any  one  carefully 
read  the  book  with  these  great  landmarks  in  his  eye, 
and  I  venture  to  predict,  that  he  will  see  order  aris- 
ing out  of  apparent  confusion,  and  light  from  seem- 
ing darkness. 

The  destruction  of  the  two  great  powers,  hostile 
to  Christianity  in  the  time  of  John,  was  the  sign  and 
pledge  of  the  overthrow  of  all  other  hostile  powers, 
and  the  final  judgment  upon  the  wicked  world. 
Where  one  event  is  thus  taken  as  the  sign  and  pledge 
of  another,  they  are  both  often  predicted  in  the 
same  connection,  and  language  used  in  reference  to 
both,  which  cannot  be  applied  in  its  full  extent  of 
meaning  to  either  separately.  (See  p.  30).  This  is 
agreeable  to  the  analogy  of  all  the  prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament;  and  in  accordance  with  this  princi- 
ple, Christ  himself  has  taught  us  to  regard  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  as  the  sign  and  pledge  of  the 
final  judgment  (Matt.  xxv.  xxvi). 

IV.    GENERAL    REMARKS    ON    PROPHECY. 

Prophecy,  in  some  circumstances,  was  given  in 
words  or  narrative,  but  generally  by  symbols  or  vis- 
ions passing  before  the  eyes  of  the  prophet*  These 
symbols,  or  visions,  were  sometimes  plain  of  them- 
selves, but  usually  they  required  some  explanation, 
which  was  given  by  soliloquies  and  songs  and  conver- 
sations, among  the  inhabitants  of  the  heavenly  world; 
or  communicated  by  some  heavenly  messenger 
directly  to  the  prophet  himself. 

For  example,  in  Ezekiel  viii.  a  series  of  visions 
passes  before  the  eyes  of  the  prophet,  which  are  plain 


166     INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE. 

of  themselves  and  need  no  explanation ;  but  in  Zech- 
ariah  iv.  the  prophet  understands  not  what  he  sees, 
and  accordingly  asks  and  receives  an  explanation. 
The  examples  of  prophecy  by  v^ords  or  narrative  are 
too  numerous  to  need  particular  reference.  Compare, 
however,  Amos  vi.  8-12,  where  there  is  a  very  im- 
impressive  prophetic  description  of  a  destructive 
pestilence. 

The  subjects  of  prophecy  are  of  two  kinds. 

I.  Sometimes  a  change  in  the  moral  and  religious 
principles  of  men  is  predicted,  and  this  change  repre- 
sented under  various  symbols,  but  without  particular 
reference  to  the  historical  circumstances  under  which 
such  changes  shall  occur.  Such  are  the  prophecies 
of  Isaiah,  respecting  the  universal  prevalence  of 
peace  and  true  religion  (Is.  ii.  2-4;  Ixvi.  17-25,  and 
other  passages). 

In  the  examination  of  such  prophecies,  we  are  not 
to  look  for  particular  historical  circumstances,  an- 
swering to  the  symbols  of  the  prophecy,  but  for  a 
corresponding  moral  and  religious  condition  of  man- 
kind, under  whatever  historical  circumstances.  The 
predictions  of  the  Apocalypse  are  mostly  of  this 
kind;  they  have  reference  to  the  prevalence  of  certain 
principles  and  the  displacement  of  certain  opposing 
principles,  rather  than  to  occurrences  in  the  polit- 
ical world;  and  hence  the  impropriety  of  forcing  all 
its  symbols  to  a  strictly  historical  application,  and 
the  confusion  resulting  from  this  attempt.  Neither 
paganism  nor  popery  are  as  yet  entirely  destroyed; 
consequently  the  prediction  respecting  them  is  not 
yet  entirely  accomplished,  but  is  still  in  the  process 


INTERPRETATION    OF   THE   APOCALYPSE.  167 

of  accomplishment.  Strict  chronological  order  is 
not  aimed  at  in  these  predictions.  The  great  promi- 
nent points  are  clearly  exhibited,  enough  is  given  for 
the  comfort  and  confidence  of  the  faithful,  enough  for 
warning  to  the  wicked,  enough  for  complete  moral 
effect;  and  this  is  all  that  God  designs  to  accomplish 
by  prophecy  of  this  kind. 

II.  Again:  sometimes  prophecy  has  reference  to 
particular  historical  events;  and  in  such  cases,  the 
language  of  the  prediction  is  found  to  correspond 
exactly  with  all  the  minute  circumstances  of  the 
event. 

Such  are  the  predictions  in  Deuteronomy  respect- 
ing the  future  condition  of  the  Jews;  in  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, and  Ezekiel,  respecting  Egypt,  Tyre,  and  Baby- 
Ion;  respecting  the  Messiah,  &c.  The  nature  and 
the  utility  of  this  kind  of  prophecy  will  be  more  fully 
considered  in  the  next  chapter. 

Note. — On  the  subject  of  the  preceding  chapter,  the  reader 
may  find  much  valuable  information  in  the  treaties  on  the 
Apocalypse  by  Eichhorn  and  Herder  in  Latin  and  German, 
and  Lowman  and  Woodhouse  in  English. 


CHAPTER    TENTH. 


HEBREW    AND    PAGAN    PROPHETS    CONTRASTED. 


I.    INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 


In  connection  with  the  Apocalypse,  which  is  the 
only  expressly  prophetical  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, we  will  offer  a  few  observations  on  the  general 
subject  of  biblical  prophecy.  A  course  of  thought, 
like  the  following,  frequently  tends  to  counteract  in 
some  minds  the  authority  of  prophecy,  namely,  that 
all  ages  have  their  prophets,  and  that  the  Hebrews, 
in  this  respect,  were  not  distinguished  from  the  Pa- 
gan nations  of  antiquity;  but  that  as  nations  became 
more  enlightened,  prophets  became  less  frequent, 
and  finally  entirely  ceased. 

It  is  true,  that  all  early  nations  have  had  their 
prophets;  but  the  affirmative  to  the  question,  have 
there  been  false  prophets?  is  not  of  course  the  nega- 
tive to  the  question,  have  there  been  true  prophets'? 
Rather,  the  universality  of  the  false  proves  the  neces- 
sity and  actual  existence  of  the  true;  for  there  is 
no  feeling  of  human  nature  so  universal  as  that 
which  induces   all  men  in  every   age   to  look  for 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS.  I  69 

prophecy,  which  has  not  something  in  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  God  of  nature  to  correspond  to  it.  That 
disposition  to  worship,  which  so  universally  leads 
uninstructed  nations  to  idolatry,  proves  that  the 
necessity  of  religion  is  founded  deep  in  human  nature, 
and  is  a  strong  presumptive  argument  that  there  is  a 
true  religion  adapted  to  this  want  of  the  human  soul, 
and  a  true  God  worthy  of  the  love  and  homage  of 
man.  The  eye  presupposes  light,  the  sense  of  smell 
fragrance;  and  every  natural  desire  has  in  nature  its 
appropriate  object  of  gratification. 

The  question  is  not,  whether  there  have  been 
prophets  among  the  pagan  nations?  but  whether  the 
prophets  of  the  heathen  and  of  the  bible  are  alike? 
or  whether  the  difference  between  them  is  so  great 
as  to  render  it  impossible  to  ascribe  their  prophetic 
power  to  the  same  source? 

The  bible  continually  and  earnestly  asserts  that 
there  is  a  difference,  and  that  this  difference  is  so 
marked,  that  no  one  who  has  had  opportunity  for 
observing,  is  excusable  for  confounding  the  one  with 
the  other.  Let  us  look  at  the  matter  as  it  actually 
existed. 

II.    HEBREW    AND    PAGAN    RELIGIONS. 

The  Hebrews  were  the  only  people  of  the  ancient 
world  who  acknowledged  and  worshipped  one  spiri- 
tual God,  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  universe. 
To  sustain  their  attachment  to  this  simple  and  pure 
faith  in  the  midst  of  surrounding  idolatry,  there  ex- 
isted among  them,  in  addition  to  the  Levites  who 
were  set  apart  for  the  same  purpose,  an  order  of  men 
15 


170         HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

called  prophets,  to  whom  the  will  of  their  God  was 
supposed  to  be  made  known  by  immediate  revelation. 
It  was  their  business  to  encourage  the  people  in 
their  obedience  to  the  divine  law,  to  instruct  them 
when  they  erred,  and  to  warn  them  when  they  went 
astray.  In  order  to  prove  the  validity  of  their  claim 
to  divine  inspiration,  they  professed  to  predict  future 
events  which  no  human  sagacity  could  foresee,  and 
to  work  miracles  which  no  human  power  could 
effect. 

The  surrounding  nations  worshipped  idols,  and 
they  also  had  prophets  who  professed  to  be  inspired 
by  those  false  deities.  The  Gentiles  all  acknowledged 
the  God  of  the  Hebrews  to  be  really  a  God,  and 
their  prophets  to  be  truly  prophets;  but  the  differ- 
ence consisted  in  this,  that  while  the  Hebrews  affirm- 
ed their  God  to  be  the  only  true  God,  and  their 
prophets  the  only  true  prophets,  the  Gentiles  merely 
claimed  that  their  gods  were  equal  to  Jehovah,  and 
their  prophets  equal  to  the  prophets  of  Jehovah  (1 
Kings,  XX.  28).  The  God  of  the  Hebrews,  in  many 
passages  of  the  bible,  reproves  the  pagan  nations  for 
this  their  error,  and  calls  upon  them  to  renounce  it. 
For  example,  in  the  forty  fifth  chapter  of  Isaiah,  after  a 
very  circumstantial  prediction  respecting  Cyrus,  in 
which  that  monarch  is  called  by  name,  and  his  various 
achievements  are  particularly  described,  at  least  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  before  his  birth;  the  God  of 
the  Hebrews  is  represented  as  declaring  that  he  had 
uttered  this  prediction  for  the  express  purpose  of 
showing  to  Cyrus,  that  Jehovah,  the  Self-Existent, 


HEBREW  AND    PAGAN    PROPHETS.  171 

ihe  Everlasting  God,  was  the  God  of  Israel  (Isaiah 
xlv.  1-7). 

He  then  contrasts  his  creative  powder,  his  open, 
frank  declarations,  and  his  undeviating  truth,  with  the 
crooked  cunning  and  falsehood  of  the  pagan  deities 
(vs.  18,  19).  Finally,  he  calls  all  nations  to  come 
together,  and,  before  them  all,  appeals  to  this  prophe- 
cy as  an  instance  of  foreknowledge  altogether  be- 
yond the  reach  of  the  heathen  prophets,  and  a  tri- 
umphant proof  that  he  alone  is  the  true  God,  and 
his  prophets  the  only  true  prophets  (vs.  20-22).  It 
will  be  my  object  in  this  chapter  to  follow  out  the 
train  of  thought  here  suggested,  and  by  contrasting 
the  Hebrew  with  the  heathen  prophets,  to  show  that 
the  former  only  have  a  just  claim  to  divine  inspiration. 

III.    PROPHETS    OF    ANCIENT    GREECE. 

The  Grecians  were  the  most  celebrated  for  learn- 
ing and  refinement  of  all  the  ancient  nations,  and 
the  epistles  of  Paul  contain  frequent  allusions  to  the 
fame  of  their  wisdom.  The  Greeks  had  their  proph- 
ets, and  to  them  the  Greek  moralists,  lawgivers,  and 
magistrates  submitted  the  most  important  questions, 
and  their  decisions  were  considered  sacredly  bind- 
ing by  this  polished  and  philosophic  people.  The 
prophets  of  ancient  Greece,  then,  being  the  best 
which  the  heathen  world  can  furnish,  will  be  selected 
as  the  subjects  of  comparison  with  the  prophets  of 
the  bible. 

To  enable  the  reader  to  make  the  comparison  for 
himself,  I  will  attempt  to  give  a  brief  and  faithful 
description  of  the  Greek  prophets,  as   represented 


172  HEBREW    AND    PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

by  the  Greek  historians,  and  of  the  Hebrew  prophets 
as  they  are  represented  in  the  bible. 

There  can  surely  be  no.  objection  to  this  mode  of 
investigating  the  subject;  for  it  allows  each  nation 
to  give  its  own  account  of  those  for  whom  it  claims 
divine  inspiration,  and  to  whom  it  attributes  a  knowl- 
edge of  future  events. 

There  was  one  class  of  sacred  persons  among  the 
ancient  Greeks  called  theomantes^  who  may,  in  some 
respects,  be  compared  with  the  Hebrew  prophets. 
They  seem  to  have  united  in  their  occupation  the 
character  of  itinerant  preacher  and  fortune-teller; 
for  they  rambled  through  the  country,  giving  people 
advice  in  regard  to  their  moral  duties,  chanting  pas- 
sages of  the  poets,  and  pretending  to  lay  open  the 
secrets  of  futurity.  But  they  never  ventured  on  pre- 
dictions, till  after  offerings  had  been  made  and  cer- 
tain prescribed  ceremonies  accurately  performed — 
the  common  expedient  of  all  impostors  to  conceal  the 
artifices  by  which  they  dupe  vulgar  credulity. 

Poorly  qualified  as  these  theomantes  were  for  re- 
ligious teachers,  it  was  to  them  alone  that  the  com- 
mon people  of  this  celebrated  nation  could  look  for 
spiritual  guidance.  None  of  their  instructions  have 
descended  to  our  times.  (Compare  Eichhorn's  Intro- 
duction to  the  Old  Testament,  in  German,  preface  to 
vol.  iv). 

IV.    GREEK    ORACLES. 

Those,  however,  who  can  more  properly  be  com- 
pared with  the  Hebrew  prophets,  were  the  attendants 
on  the  various  oracles.     These  separated  themselves 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS.         173 

from  ail  human  society  and  withdrew  to  some  soli- 
tude, where  a  thick  wood,  a  craggy  mountain,  a 
waterfall,  or  a  dark  cave,  might  awaken  the  awe  of 
their  superstitious  countrymen,  and  impose  upon 
them  the  belief  that  there  was  the  residence  of  some 
pagan  deity.  There  they  lived  in  mysterious  retire- 
ment, and  pretended  to  hold  intercourse  with  the  in- 
visible w^orld.  Thither  must  all  repair  who  wished 
to  consult  them;  and  no  one  could  obtain  an  answer 
to  his  inquiries,  till  he  had  presented  gifts  to  the  god 
of  the  place,  and  passed  through  various  ceremonies, 
all  calculated  to  put  him  in  such  a  state  of  shuddering 
apprehension  as  would  prevent  his  detecting  an  im- 
position, or  suspecting  the  artifice  of  which  he  was 
made  the  dupe.  The  responses  were  then  given, 
artfully  expressed  in  hexameter  verse  by  poets  hired 
for  that  purpose ;  but  their  language  is  so  chosen,  that 
it  is  always  more  or  less  equivocal  and  often  unintel- 
ligible. Many  of  these  oracles  or  prophecies  have 
been  preserved  by  the  Greek  historians,  though  no 
two  writers,  when  they  profess  to  record  the  same 
oracle,  ever  give  it  in  precisely  the  same  words.    » 

We  have  enough  of  these  remains  to  enable  us  to 
form  an  estimate  of  the  subjects,  which  were  usually 
laid  before  the  Greek  prophets,  and  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  disposed  of  them.  Religion  or  morality 
is  very  seldom  mentioned.  They  were  principally 
occupied  about  public  enterprise,  emigrations,  wars, 
and  controversies  between  states  and  individuals. 
When  disputes  were  to  be  settled  by  them,  they 
were  often  bribed  by  one  party  to  give  sentence 
against  the  other;  if  they  desired  to  keep  in  favor 
15* 


174  HEBREW  AND    PAGAN    PROPHETS* 

with  both,  they  would  procrastinate  and  evade  the 
question.  When  the  issue  of  public  enterprises  waa 
demanded,  they  sometimes  learned  from  men  of  ex- 
perience in  public  affairs  what  reply  it  would  be  most 
safe  to  give;  or  their  answers  were  so  artfully  couch- 
ed, that  they  could  bear  opposite  meanings.  If 
these  expedients  failed,  they  referred  the  inquirer  to 
the  superstitious  arts  of  magic  and  astrology;  or 
they  evaded  the  point  by  railery,  and  instead  of  in- 
structing by  prophecy,  amused  or  irritated  by  sar- 
casm; and  when  every  resource  of  cunning  was  ex- 
hausted, they  would  say  that  their  god  was  an- 
gry and  refused  to  answer.  What  is  remarkable 
in  all  their  prophecies,  they  seldom,  if  ever,  have  any 
good  moral  tendency.  Virtue  is  not  rewarded,  nor 
vice  punished.  Power  is  flattered,  however  unjust; 
and  weakness  is  left  unprotected,  however  innocent. 
The  grossest  idolatry  is  always  inculcated;  and, 
m  many  instances,  the  horrid  superstition  of  sacri- 
ficing human  beings  to  the  infernal  gods  is  expressly 
enjoined. 

An  extravagant  pecuniary  reward  was  generally 
the  only  condition  on  which  these  pretended  prophe- 
cies could  be  obtained. 

Every  part  of  this  description  of  the  Greek  proph- 
ets can  be  verified  by  quotations  from  the  Greek 
historians.  (Compare  Potter's  Antiquities  of  Greece, 
Book  ii.  chap.  7-1 2). 

V.    ORACLES    OF    APOLLO  AND    TROPHONIUS. 

It  is  obvious  from  history,  that  some  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Greek  oracles  owed  their  celebrity 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS.         175 

to  exhilarating  or  stupifying  gasses  issuing  from  sub- 
terranean caverns.  Of  all  the  oracles  of  ancient 
Greece,  none  was  more  confided  in  than  that  of 
Apollo  at  Delphi.  The  manner  of  its  discovery  is 
thus  related  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (Book  xvi).  'Upon 
mount  Parnassus,  w^here  goats  were  wont  to  feed, 
there  was  a  deep  cavern  with  a  small  narrow  mouth, 
to  which  when  any  of  the  goats  approached,  they 
began  immediately  to  leap  after  a  most  unusual  and 
antic  manner,  uttering  strange  and  unheard  of  sounds. 
The  goatherd  observing  this,  and  wondering  what 
should  be  the  cause  of  it,  went  himself  to  view  the 
cavern,  whereupon  he  also  was  seized  with  a  like  fit 
of  madness,  leaping,  and  dancing,  and  foretelling 
things  to  come.' 

The  effect  of  this  gas  on  the  officiating  priestess, 
is  thus  described  by  archbishop  Potter  in  the  work 
already  quoted:  'She  was  no  sooner  inspired,  but 
she  began  immediately  to  swell  and  foam  at  the 
mouth,  tearing  her  hair,  cutting  her  flesh,  and  in  all 
her  other  behavior  appearing  like  one  frantic  and 
distracted.'  'In  some  instances  the  paroxysm  was 
so  violent  as  to  occasion  immediate  death. 

Pausanias  informs  us  that  'he  who  desired  to  con- 
sult the  oracle  of  Trophonius's  cave  at  Lebadea  in 
Bceotia,  was  obliged  to  undergo  various  preparatory 
ceremonies,  which  continued  through  several  days: 
he  was  to  purify  himself  by  various  methods,  and  to 
offer  sacrifices  to  many  different  deities;  he  was  then 
conducted  by  night  to  a  neighboring  river,  where  he 
was  anointed  and  washed;  he  afterwards  drank  of 
the  waters  of  forgetfulness,  that  his  former  care& 


176         HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

might  be  buried;  and  of  the  water  of  remembrance, 
that  he  might  forget  nothing  of  what  he  was  to  see. 
The  cave  was  surrounded  by  a  wall;  it  resembled 
an  oven;  was  four  cubits  wide  and  eight  deep;  it  was 
descended  by  a  ladder;  and  he  who  went  down  car- 
ried with  him  cakes  made  of  honey;  when  he  was 
got  down  he  was  made  acquainted  with  futurity.' 
(See  Beloe's  Herodotus,  vol.  i.  p.  36). 

He  was  always  pale  and  dejected  on  his  return, 
and  thence  it  became  proverbial  to  say  of  a  melan- 
choly man,  that  he  had  consulted  the  oracle  of 
Trophonius. 

It  was  in  contrast  with  oracles  such  as  these  that 
Jehovah  declares,  /  have  not  spoken  in  secret^  in  a 
dark  place  of  the  earth:  and  in  contrast  with  the  dif- 
ficulty of  obtaining  the  oracular  responses,  and  their 
ambiguous  and  unintelligible  language  when  obtained, 
(which  we  shall  now  proceed  to  notice),  that  he 
makes  the  additional  declarations:  I  said  not  to  the 
seed  of  Jacobs  seek  ye  me  in  vain,  I  the  Lord  speak 
righteousness^  I  declare  tilings  that  are  right:  that  is, 
as  bishop  Lowth  translates  it,  'I  speak  truth  and 
give  direct  answers'  (Isa.  xlv.  19). 

The  time  of  consulting  the  Delphic  oracle  was 
originally  only  during  one  month  of  the  year,  and 
generally  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  month,  that 
being  considered  Apollo's  birthday;  and  when  re- 
sponses were  given  most  frequently,  they  could  never 
be  obtained  oftener  than  once  a  month. 

•Whoever  went  to  consult  the  oracle,'  says  Pot- 
ter, 'was  required  to  make  large  presents  to  the 
god,  whereby  it  came  to  pass  that  this  temple,  in 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS,         177 

riches,  splendor,  and  magnificence,  was  superior  to 
almost  all  others  in  the  world.'  'It  was  the  custom 
also  to  offer  sacrifices  to  Apollo,  in  which,  except  the 
omens  were  favorable,  the  prophetess  would  not 
give  any  answer.  At  the  sacrifices  there  were  five 
priests  that  assisted  the  prophets,  and  another  priest 
also  that  assisted  the  prophetess  in  managing  the 
oracle.'  (Potter's  Antiquities  of  Greece,  Book  ii. 
chap.  ix). 

As  those  priests  were  the  sole  judges  of  the  omens, 
it  was  very  easy  for  them  to  evade  every  question 
respecting  which  it  might  be  inexpedient  for  them  to 
commit  themselves. 

Among  the  presents  which  Croesus  sent  to  this 
oracle,  Herodotus  (B.  i.  c.  50,  51)  enumerates  the 
following,  'one  hundred  and  seventeen  tiles  of  gold, 
four  of  which  were  of  the  purest  gold,  each  weighing 
one  talent  and  a  half;  the  rest  of  inferior  quality, 
but  of  the  weight  of  two  talents;  also  a  lion  of  pure 
gold,  weighing  ten  talents;  two  large  vessels  or  gob- 
lets, one  of  gold  and  the  other  of  silver,  the  former 
weighing  nearly  nine  talents,  and  the  latter  contain- 
ing six  hundred  amphorae;  a  female  statue  of  gold, 
three  cubits  high,'  and  many  other  things  of  equal 
value. 

To  the  oracle  of  Amphiarus  in  Thebes,  he  also  sent 
•a  shield  of  solid  gold,  with  a  strong  spear  made  en- 
tirely of  gold,  both  shaft  and  head.  These  were  all 
(continues  Herodotus)  within  my  memory,  preserved 
at  Thebes,  in  the  temple  of  the  Ismenian  Apollo.' 

They  who  consulted  this  oracle  of  Amphiarus, 
were  to  abstain  from  wine  for  three  days,  and  froni 


178         HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

all  nourishment  for  twenty  four  hours.  They  then 
sacrificed  a  ram,  on  the  skin  of  which  they  lay  down 
to  sleep,  and  received  responses  in  their  dreams. 

VI.    CHARACTER    OF    THE    ORACULAR    RESPONSES. 

The  general  character  of  the  oracular  responses  is 
described  by  the  pagan  Cicero,  with  entire  fidelity, 
in  the  following  paragraph  from  his  work  de  Divina- 
tione  (ii.  56). 

'But  now  I  come  to  thee,  sacred  Apollo,  who  dwell- 
est  at  the  centre  of  the  earth,  whence  first  proceed- 
ed the  wild  and  superstitious  sound.*  For  Chrysip- 
pus  has  filled  a  whole  volume  with  thy  oracles, 
partly  false,  as  I  think;  and  sometimes  true  by  mere 
accident,  as  it  frequently  so  happens  in  other  cases; 
and  sometimes  enigmatical  and  obscure,  so  that  the 
interpreter  needs  to  be  interpreted,  and  the  response 
referred  back  to  the  oracle ;  and  often  purposely  and 
artificially  ambiguous.  For  when  this  response  came 
to  the  richest  king  of  Asia,  "Croesus  by  crossing  the 
Halys  shall  destroy  a  great  power,"  he  supposed  that 
he  was  to  destroy  the  power  of  the  enemy,  but  he 
destroyed  his  own.  Whatever  might  have  been  the 
event,  therefore,  the  oracle  would  have  remained 
true.' 

Herodotus  informs  us  (B.  i.  c.  91)  that  when 
Croesus,  after  his  defeat,  made  complaint  to  the 
priestess  of  Apollo,  that  she  had  deceived  him  in  the 
oracle  referred  to  in  this  passage  of  Cicero,  she  re- 

*  Sed  jam  ad  te  venio, 
Sancte  Apollo,  qui  umbilicum  certum  terrarum  obsides, 
Unde  superstitiosa  primum  sseva  evasit  vox  fera. 


HEBREW  AND    PAGAN    PROPHETS.  179 

plied,  'that  Croesus  was  not  justified  in  his  com- 
plaints; for  Apollo  had  declared,  that  if  he  made 
war  against  the  Persians,  a  mighty  empire  would  be 
overthrown;  the  real  purport  of  which  communica- 
tion, if  he  had  been  anxious  to  understand,  it  became 
him  to  have  inquired  whether  the  god  alluded  to  his 
empire,  or  to  the  empire  of  Cyrus;  but  that  not  un- 
derstanding the  reply  which  had  been  made,  nor  con- 
descending to  make  a  second  inquiry,  he  had  been 
himself  the  cause  of  his  own  misfortune.'  By  this 
evasion,  the  unfortunate  king  found  that  he  had  been 
outwitted,  and  was  obliged  to  submit  in  silence. 

To  illustrate  still  further  the  nature  of  the  subjects 
which  were  usually  laid  before  the  Greek  prophets, 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  disposed  of  them,  the 
following  examples  are  selected  from  Herodotus. 

On  a  certain  occasion  the  Lacedemonians,  says 
Herodotus,  '  dissatisfied  with  the  languor  and  inac- 
tivity of  peace,  and  conceiving  themselves,  in  all 
respects,  superior  to  the  Tegeans,  they  sent  to  con- 
sult the  oracle  concerning  the  entire  conquest  of 
Arcadia.     The  Pythian  thus  answered  them: 

Ask  ye  Arcadia?   'tis  a  bold  demand, 
A  rough  and  hardy  race  defend  the  land. 
Repulsed  by  them,  one  only  boon  you  gain, 
With  frequent  foot  to  dance  on  Tegea's  plain. 
And  o'er  her  fields  the  meas'ring  cord  to  strain.*' 

*  The  above  is  Beloe's  translation.  Literally  rendered, 
the  latter  part  of  the  oracle  reads  thus:  '  But  I  will  not  re- 
fuse you.  I  will  grant  you  to  dance  on  Tegea,  struck  with 
your  feet,  and  to  allot  th^i  fine  soil  with  the  cord.' 


180         HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

'No  sooner  had  the  Lacedemonians  received  this 
reply  than,  leaving  the  other  parts  of  Arcadia  unmo- 
lested, they  proceeded  to  attack  the  Tegeans,  carry- 
ing a  quantity  of  fetters  with  them.  They  relied  on 
the  evasive  declaration  of  the  oracle,  and  imagined 
that  they  should  infallibly  reduce  the  Tegeans  to  ser- 
vitude. They  engaged  them  and  were  defeated:  as 
many  as  were  taken  captive  were  loaded  with  the 
fetters  which  themselves  had  brought,  and  were  thus 
employed  in  laborious  service  in  the  fields  of  the 
Tegeans.'  (B.  i.  c.  66). 

The  Lacedemonians,  after  having  been  repeatedly 
defeated  by  the  Tegeans,  again  sent  to  consult  the 
Delphic  oracle.  'The  Pythian  (says  Herodotus) 
assured  them  of  success,  if  they  brought  back  the 
body  of  Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon.  Unable  to 
discover  his  tomb,  they  sent  a  second  time  to  inquire 
concerning  the  place  of  his  interment.  The  follow- 
ing was  the  oracular  communication: 

A  plain  within  the  Arcadian  land  I  know, 
Where  double  winds  with  forced  exertion  blow, 
Where  form  to  form  with  mutual  strength  replies, 
And  ill  by  other  ills  supported  lies: 
That  earth  contains  the  great  Atrides'  son; 
Take  him  and  conquer :  Tegea  then  is  won.' 

I  give  the  oracle  in  the  translation  of  Beloe,  but 
the  last  line,  on  which  the  import  of  the  whole  de- 
pends, literally  rendered,  reads  thus: 

Having  taken  him,  (that  is,  the  body  of  Orestes), 
thou  shah  be  a  helper  of  Tegea, 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS.         181 

The  Lacedemonians  were  as  much  in  the  dark  as 
ever  in  respect  to  the  place  where  they  might  find  the 
body  of  Orestes,  but  they  continued  their  search  for 
it  without  intermission.  At  length  one  of  their  dis- 
tinguished countrymen  named  Lichas,  being  in  Arca- 
dia on  public  business,  and  happening  to  visit  a 
smith  at  his  forge,  observed  with  particular  curiosity 
the  process  of  working  the  iron.  The  man  took  no- 
tice of  his  attention,  and  desisted  from  his  labor. 
^Stranger  of  Sparta,  said  he,  you  seem  to  admire  the 
art  which  you  contemplate;  but  how  much  more 
would  you  be  excited,  if  you  knew  all  that  I  am  able 
to  communicate  t  Near  this  place,  as  I  was  sinking  a 
well,  I  found  a  coffin  seven  cubits  long.  I  never  be- 
lieved that  men  were  formerly  of  larger  dimensions 
than  at  present;  but  when  I  opened  it,  I  discovered 
a  body  equal  in  length  to  the  coffin.  I  correctly 
measured  it,  and  replaced  it  where  I  found  it.' 

'Lichas,  after  hearing  his  relation,  was  induced  to 
believe  that  this  was  the  body  of  Orestes,  concerning 
which  the  oracle  had  spoken.  He  w^as  further  per- 
suaded,, when  he  recollected  that  the  bellows  of  the 
smith  might  intimate  the  two  winds;  the  anvil  and 
the  hammer  might  express  one  form  opposinganother; 
sthe  iron  also  which  was  beaten,  might  signify  ill  suc- 
ceeding ill,  rightly  conceiving  that  the  use  of  iron 
operated  to  the  injury  of  mankind.' 

The  Spartans  by  stratagem  got  possession  of  the 
bones,  and  Tegea  was  conquered.  (Herodotus,  B.  i. 
c.  68). 

Both  the  above  oracles,  particularly  in  the  original 
Greek,  are  entirely  ambiguous,  and  would  have  been 
16 


1^2         HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

equally  true  in  each  case,  whether  the  Spartans  or 
Tegeans  had  conquered.  They  also  sanction  glaring 
injustice,  for  it  is  not  even  intimated  to  the  Spartans, 
that  their  projected  unprovoked  attack  on  the  peace- 
ful Tegeans,  for  the  sake  of  robbing  them  of  their 
lands  and  making  them  slaves,  was  contrary  to  every 
principle  of  right.  Nor  does  the  historian  himself 
seem  to  think  it  wrong  for  the  Spartans  to  make  war 
because  they  were  tired  of  peace,  nor  a  defect  in  the 
oracle  that  it  has  nothing  to  say  on  the  subject  of 
moral  obligation.  Politics,  and  not  religion,  war  and 
revenge,  not  peace  and  goodwill,  were  the  topics 
most  acceptable  to  the  prophets  of  ancient  Greece. 

Herodotus  also  (B.  vii.  c.  140-142)  details  the 
oracles  given  to  the  Athenians,  respecting  the  issue 
of  the  Persian  invasion;  and  also  several  others  in 
different  parts  of  his  history.  They  are  all  of  the 
same  general  character  with  those  already  described. 

It  is  well  known,  that  the  Greek  oracles  were  fre- 
quently bribed  by  public  men  to  give  such  answers 
as  would  promote  their  own  schemes.  Plutarch  in- 
forms us,  in  his  life  of  Themistocles,  that  this  general, 
'  perceiving  that  he  could  not,  by  the  force  of  human 
reason,  prevail  with  the  multitude,  set  his  machinery 
to  work  as  a  poet  would  do  in  a  tragedy,  and  had 
recourse  to  prodigies  and  oracles;'  and  Demosthenes 
publicly  complained,  that  the  Delphic  oracle,  being 
bribed  by  Philip,  philipized.  'He  put  the  Thebans 
in  mind  of  Epaminondas,  and  the  Athenians  of  Peri- 
cles, how  they  reckoned  such  things  (as  oracles  and 
prodigies)  the  mere  pretexts  of  cowardice,  and  pur- 


HEBREW  AND    PAGAN    PROPHETS.  183 

sued  the  plan  which  their  reason  had  dictated.'  (Plu- 
tarch's Life  of  Demosthenes). 

Such  was  the  estimation  in  which  the  Greek  oracles 
were  held  by  the  most  intelligent  of  the  Greeks  them- 
selves. And  do  you  not  in  this  description  of  the 
Greek  prophets,  as  given  by  the  Greek  historians, 
plainly  discover  all  the  features  of  selfishness,  impos- 
ture, and  crime? 

How  easy  for  these  pretended  prophets  to  deceive, 
if  they  chose;  and  how  much  their  whole  system  of 
operations  appears  like  an  attempt  to  conceal  a  profit- 
able fraud! 

Surely, '  they  have  no  knowledge  that  set  up  the 
wood  of  their  graven  image  and  pray  unto  a  god 
that  cannot  save.  He  feedeth  on  ashes;  a  deceived 
heart  hath  turned  him  aside,  that  he  cannot  deliver 
his  soul,  nor  say,  is  there  not  a  lie  in  my  right  hand?' 
(Isaiah  xlv.  20;  xliv.  20). 

IV.      MANNERS    AND    CHARACTER    OF    THE    HEBREW    PROPHETS. 

From  this  scene  of  pagan  imposture  and  credulity, 
let  us  now  turn  to  the  prophets  of  the  bible.  In 
every  respect  we  find  them  the  reverse  of  those  just 
described.  They  sought  no  concealment,  and  affect- 
ed no  mystery;  but  mingled  with  society,  and  lived 
generally  like  other  men.  They  were  at  all  times 
and  in  all  places  accessible  to  such  as  craved  their 
advice,  and  this  they  freely  imparted  without  exact- 
ing gifts  to  gratify  their  own  avarice,  or  requiring 
ceremonies  to  work  on  the  fears  of  those  who  con- 
sulted them.  No  arts  were  resorted  to,  to  deceive 
others  into  a  mysterious  dread  of  their  sacredness. 


184  HEBREW  AND   PAGAN    PROPHETS. 

It  is  true,  that  they  sometimes  used  striking  symbolie 
representations,  but  it  was  to  awaken  the  attention 
of  a  sensual  and  thoughtless  people  to  listen  to  their 
instructions  (Isaiah  xx.  2-4). 

They  were  sometimes  seen  in  the  habiliments  of 
mourning;  but  it  was  to  manifest  the  depth  of  the 
grief  they  felt  for  the  sin  and  the  obstinacy  of  their 
nation. 

In  their  prophecies  there  was  neither  artifice,  eva- 
sion, nor  ambiguity;  but  they  were  prompt,  direct, 
and  decisive.  On  all  occasions  of  great  public  inte- 
rest, they  were  seen  in  the  most  frequented  places, 
enforcing  their  instructions  with  the  most  sincere 
and  impassioned  eloquence  upon  the  listening  throngs 
who  surrounded  them.  These  public  addresses  they 
frequently  committed  to  writing,  and  we  have  them 
in  every  form,  from  the  simplest  prose  to  the  most 
lofty  elevation  of  poetry.  The  writings  of  the  He- 
brew prophets  which  have  descended  to  us,  are  so 
full  and  complete,  that  we  have  every  facility  for  as- 
certaining the  usual  subjects  and  general  character 
of  their  prophecies. 

VII.    SUBJECTS    AND    CHARACTER    OF    THEIR    PROPHECIES. 

Religion  was  the  great  subject  on  which  they  lov- 
ed to  dwell,  and  with  them  religion  was  neither  an 
empty  sound  nor  a  superstitious  ceremonial.  The 
love  and  worship  of  one  spiritual  and  holy  God,, 
obedience  to  his  law,  purity  of  heart,  as  the  most 
acceptable  sacrifice,  (an  idea  beyond  even  the  imagi- 
nation of  a  heathen  prophet);  these  constituted  the 
religion  of  the  Hebrew  prophets.     It  was  in  contem- 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS.         185 

plation  of  subjects  such  as  these,  that  their  spirits 
moved  with  rapture,  rose  on  the  wings  of  a  holy  en- 
thusiasm to  the  very  throne  of  the  Majesty  on  high, 
which  no  mortal  eye  but  theirs  had  ever  seen,  and  no 
mortal  tongue  but  theirs  had  ever  dared  to  celebrate. 
In  all  their  prophecies,  it  was  their  constant  aim 
to  exert  the  most  salutary  moral  influence.  Calam- 
ity they  always  threatened  as  the  punishment  of  sin, 
and  prosperity  was  the  sure  reward  of  holy  obe- 
dience. To  the  corruptions  of  their  times,  they  pre- 
sented independent,  bold,  and  unyielding  opposition; 
ungodly  rulers,  they  fearlessly  withstood,  by  severe 
and  public  rebuke;  and  when  kings  and  people  unit- 
ed to  abolish  or  disregard  the  laws  of  God,  these 
holy  men  came  forth  (though  hatred,  persecution, 
imprisonment,  and  death  were  often  the  reward  of 
their  fidelity)  with  direct,  unequivocal,  and  solemn 
declarations  of  their  own  abhorrence  of  such  evil 
designs  and  of  the  divine  vengeance  against  them. 
Superstitious  arts  calculated  to  impose  on  the  credu- 
lity of  an  ignorant  multitude,  such  as  astrology, 
magic,  and  necromancy,  they  pointedly  condemned; 
and  the  rich  presents  which  were  offered  them,  they 
rejected.  Their  predictions  of  future  events  were 
public,  clear,  impossible  to  be  misapprehended,  and 
such  as  no  human  foresight  could  have  conjectured. 

VIII.    ILLUSTRATIONS    FROM    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT. 

You  scarcely  need  to  be  referred  to  instances  of 
what  has  now  been  advanced,  for  they  occur  so  fre- 
quently on  the  pages  of  the  Old  Testament,  that  one 
who  has  any  acquaintance  with  the  bible,  will  be  at 
16* 


tSS  PIEBREW  AND    PAGAN    PROPHETS* 

no  loss  to  verify  this  description  of  the  biblical 
prophets. 

You  cannot  have  forgotten  how^  Elisha  repelled 
the  princely  offers  of  Naaman;  hov^  Isaiah  publicly 
and  severely  rebuked  the  idolatrous  Ahaz;  how 
steadfastly  Jeremiah  resisted  the  rebellious  designs  of 
his  king  and  nation,  though  their  reproaches  and  per- 
secutions wounded  him  so  deeply  that  he  often  wish- 
ed for  death  to  put  an  end  to  his  anguish.  In  the 
whole  character  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  we  see  a 
frankness  which  disdained  concealment,  and  a  virtue 
which  abhorred  deception. 

In  further  illustration  of  what  has  been  advanced 
examine  2  Sam.  xii;  1  Kings  xviii.  10,  17,  18;  xxi^ 
17-24. 

The  prophet  Nathan  did  not  hesitate  to  pourtray 
m  the  liveliest  colors  the  sin  which  had  been  com- 
mitted by  his  sovereign  and  patron,  and  boldly  to 
say  to  the  guilty  monarch.  Thou  art  the  man. 

The  prophet  Elijah  knew  that  the  tyrant  Ahab  had 
long  been  searching  all  the  neighboring  states  to  ap- 
prehend and  put  him  to  death;  but  he  fearlessly  stood 
before  him,  and  when  the  haughty  monarch  accosted 
him  with  the  question,  'Art  thou  he  that  troubleth 
Israel?'  he  instantly  replied,  'I  have  not  troubled 
Israel;  but  thou  and  thy  father's  house,  in  that  ye 
have  forsaken  the  commandments  of  the  Lord;  and 
thou  hast  followed  Baalim.' 

When  the  same  king  had  been  guilty  of  another 
act  of  the  most  flagrant  injustice  respecting  Naboth,. 
the  same  prophet  went  to  him  with  the  appalling 
message:  'Thus  saith  the  Lord,  In  the  place  where- 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS.         187 

dogs  licked  the  blood  of  Naboth,  shall  dogs  lick  thy 
blood,  even  thine.  And  Ahab  said  to  Elijah,  Hast 
thou  found  me,  O  mine  enemy?  And  he  answered, 
I  have  found  thee,  because  thou  hast  sold  thyself  to 
work  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord.'  Where  in  the 
whole  compass  of  heathen  inspiration  shall  we  find 
a  resistance  to  regal  tyranny,  a  defence  of  injured 
and  helpless  innocence,  to  be  compared  with  this? 

IX.     THE    CONTRAST. 

And  now  is  not  the  difference  between  the  He- 
brew and  the  heathen  prophets  perfectly  obvious? 
In  the  one  case  we  see  all  the  machinery  of  fraud,  a 
total  destitution  of  moral  feeling,  and  every  indica- 
tion of  an  exclusive  attachment  to  this  world.  In 
the  other  case  we  can  discover  no  wish  and  no  op- 
portunity to  deceive;  we  find  a  most  acute  moral 
sensibility  and  an  inflexible  adherence  to  w^hat  is 
right,  and  a  total  renunciation  of  all  worldly  hopes, 
whenever  they  interfered  with  the  calls  of  duty.  The 
former,  just  what  we  should  expect  from  men  of  this 
world,  who  had  no  faith  in  another;  the  latter,  just 
what  we  should  expect  from  men  of  God,  who  had 
placed  all  their  hopes  in  heaven.  Who,  that  has  any 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  can  pretend  to  place  them, 
on  equal  ground,  or  say  that  they  have  equal  claims 
to  divine  inspiration?  In  the  contrast,  the  interpreter 
of  Greek  oracles  stands  abashed  before  the  Hebrew 
prophet,  like  the  witch  of  Endor  before  the  rising 
spirit  of  Samuel. 

How  shall  we  account  for  it,  that  the  Hebrews,. 
who  were  so  far  below  the  Greeks  in  learning,  re- 


188  HEBREW  AND    PAGAN    PROPHETSr 

finement,  and  power,  should  rise  so  far  above  them  in 
the  character  of  their  religious  teachers?  To  the 
Hebrews  were  sent  holy  men  of  God^  who  spake  as 
they  icere  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost;  while  the  Greeks, 
seeking  after  wisdom^  became  vain  in  their  imagination^ 
and  their  foolish  heart  was  darkened. 

Deficiency  in  religious  feeling,  and  not  the  want  of 
appropriate  and  sufficient  evidence,  is,  after  all,  the 
great  cause  of  scepticism  in  respect  to  the  inspiration 
of  the  bible.  In  the  stillness  of  a  vSabbath  morning, 
when,  if  ever,  the  soul  loves  to  commune  with  hea- 
ven, let  the  devout  man  open  the  sacred  pages,  and 
read  till  his  heart  glows  with  something  of  the  fervor 
of  the  inspired  writers,  and  while  his  affections  are 
flowing  with  full  tide  towards  the  God  of  the  Hebrew 
patriarchs  and  prophets,  let  him  lay  aside  the  bible, 
and  suddenly  turn  his  attention  to  any,  even  the  most 
lofty  flights  of  heathen  inspiration,  and  the  painful 
revulsion  of  feeling  which  he  experiences,  shows  him 
at  once  that  he  has  changed  his  element,  that  he  has 
fallen  upon  another  world.  The  angels  who  were 
sent  to  warn  Lot  of  his  danger,  could  scarcely  have 
felt  a  greater  contrast  when  they  left  the  courts  of 
heaven,  to  tread  the  polluted  streets  of  Sodom.  The 
devout  man,  who  reads  the  prophetic  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament,  with  one  spark  of  the  feeling  with 
which  they  were  composed,  no  more  needs  a  philo- 
sophical proof  of  their  divine  origin,  than  Elijah 
needed  a  metaphysical  demonstration  of  the  existence 
of  God,  while  ascending  to  heaven  in  his  fiery  chariot; 
and  I  suppose  no  one  will  consider  it  a  breach  of 
charity  to  say,  that  it  is  not  by  devout  men,  that  the 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS,  189 

divine  authority  of  the  Old  Testament  is  called  in 
question. 

X.    FULFILMENT    OF   PROPHECY. 

In  further  illustration  of  this  subject,  we  will  now 
notice  a  few  of  the  more  remarkable  prophecies  of  the 
bible,  which,  with  their  fulfilment,  the  reader  is  re- 
quested to  compare  with  the  Greek  prophecies  intro- 
duced in  section  vi.  of  this  chapter. 

1 .  Predictions  respecting  Cyrus,  Isaiah  xliv.  xlv. 

About  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  the  birth 
of  Cyrus,  the  Hebrew  prophet  Isaiah  described  this 
monarch  by  name,*  and  intimated  (Isaiah  x-lv.  4)  that 
this  was  his  surname^  and  not  the  name  given  him  at 
his  birth;  accurately  foretold  the  victories  he  was  to 
achieve,  and  the  benefits  which  he  was  to  confer  upon 
the  Jewish  people,  by  delivering  them  from  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity.  This  prophecy  was  published  nearly^ 
a  century  before  Nebuchadnezzar  subdued  Judea.. 
Babylon  was  then  but  just  rising  into  notice;  the 
very  existence  of  the  empire  was  scarcely  known  to 
the  Hebrews;  Persia,  the  native  country  of  Cyrus, 
was  yet  in  the  darkness  of  barbarism;  while  Judea 
was  an  old,  established  and  powerful  kingdom.  The 
accomplishment  of  this  prediction,  therefore,  would 

*  Herodotus  informs  us  (B.  i.  c.  114)  that  Cyrus  was  not  the 
original  name  of  this  monarch,  but  one  which  he  assumed  at 
a  later  period,  probably  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  or  after 
the  achievement  of  some  of  his  great  victories.  In  the  He- 
brew the  name  is  written  iy-)l3  [Koraesh],  and  in  the  Pehlvi 
or  ancient  Persian,  Korshid,  which  means  sun-glory,  or 
splendor  like  that  of  the  sun.  (See  Jahn's  Heb.Com.  p.  148). 


190         HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

appear  to  the  politicians  of  that  age  as  improbable, 
as  it  would  now  appear  to  our  politicians,  if  they 
were  told  that  these  United  States  in  the  course  of  a 
century  would  fall  under  the  dominion  of  one  of  the 
new  and  still  tottering  republics  of  South  America, 
and  would  finally  be  delivered  from  their  bondage  by 
a  powerful  monarch  of  the  Northwest  Coast.  To 
this  prophecy  Jehovah  appeals,  (as  has  been  already 
observed)  as  an  instance  of  foreknowledge  altogether 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  heathen  prophets,  and  a  tri- 
umphant proof,  that  he  alone  is  the  true  God,  and 
his  prophets  the  only  true  prophets. 

'Assemble  yourselves  (says  he)  and  come,  draw 
near  together  ye  that  are  escaped  of  the  nations: 
they  have  no  knowledge  that  set  up  the  wood  of  their 
graven  image,  and  pray  unto  a  god  that  cannot  save. 
Tell  ye,  and  bring  them  near;  yea,  let  them  take 
counsel  together,  who  hath  declared  this  from  ancient 
time?  Have  not  I  the  Lord?  and  there  is  no  God 
else  besides  me;  a  just  God  and  a  Saviour,  there  is 
none  besides  me.  Look  unto  me,  and  be  ye  saved, 
all  the  ends  of  the  earth;  for  I  am  God,  and  there  is 
none  else'  (Isaiah  xlv.  20,  21). 

2.  Predictions  respecting  Babylon. 

In  close  connection  with  the  preceding  are  the 
predictions  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  respecting  the 
overthrow  of  Babylon,  the  fulfilment  of  which  we 
will  now  consider.  Of  these  predictions  that  of 
Isaiah  was  uttered  one  hundred  and  sixty  years,  and 
that  of  Jeremiah  fifty  six  years  before  the  event. 
(Compare  Jer.  l.-li).  The  historical  proof  on  this 
subject  is  entirely  conclusive,  and  will  be  exhibited 


HEBREW  AND    PAGAN    PROPHETS,  I9l 

in  its  proper  place,  when  we  come  to  the  discussion 
of  the  authenticity  of  the  prophetic  writings  of  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah.  It  cannot  be  said,  therefore,  with  any 
show  of  reason,  that  these  prophecies  were  written 
after  the  events. 

The  circumstantial  particularity  of  these  predic- 
tions, their  antecedent  improbability,  their  progres- 
sive accomplishment  through  a  long  series  of  ages, 
and  the  great  variety  of  the  events  predicted,  ren- 
der it  equally  impossible  to  account  for  these  pro- 
phecies on  the  ground  that  they  were  sagacious  and 
happy  conjectures. 

To  enable  the  reader  to  make  the  comparison  for 
himself,  I  will  exhibit  the  predictions  in  the  words  of 
the  prophets,  and  in  parallel  columns  the  account  of 
the  events  in  the  words  of  the  classic  historians,  re- 
lying principally  on  Herodotus  and  Xenophon.  The 
first  of  these  historians  lived  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  after  Isaiah  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  after  Jere- 
miah, and  the  latter  three  hundred  and  fifty  after 
Isaiah  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  after  Jeremiah. 

Babylon  was  considered  impregnable.  Its  high 
and  strong  walls  surmounted  by  lofty  towers,  its 
broad  and  deep  ditches,  its  large  magazines,  and  the 
numerous  squares  within  the  city,  which  were  plant- 
ed with  corn  and  yielded  an  annual  supply  of  pro- 
visions, seemed  sufiicient  to  secure  the  inhabitants 
forever  from  all  attacks  of  their  enemies.  (Jahn's 
Heb.  Com.  p.  152). 

Some  of  the  more  remarkable  circumstances  of  its 
capture  and  subsequent  fate,  exhibiting  the  coin- 
cidence between  prophecy  and  history  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 


192 


HEBREW  AND   PAGAN    PROPHETS. 


1.    The  besieging  army   to    consist   of  various 
nations. 


PROPHECY. 

Go  up,  O  Elam,  besiege, 
O  Media  (Isaiah  xxi.  2). 

The  noise  of  a  multitude 
in  the  mountains,  like  as 
of  a  great  people;  a  tu- 
multuous noise  of  the 
kingdoms  of  nations  gath- 
ered together:  the  Lord 
of  hosts  numbereth  the 
host  of  the  battle.  They 
come  from  a  far  country, 
from  the  end  of  heaven 
(Isaiah  xiii.  4,  5). 

Set  ye  up  a  standard  in 
the  land,  blow  the  trum- 
pet among  the  nations, 
prepare  the  nations  a- 
gainst  her,  call  together 
against  her  the  kingdom 
of  Ararat,  Minni,  and 
Ashchenaz;  appoint  a  cap- 
tain against  her;  cause 
the  horses  to  come  up  as 
the  rough  caterpillars. 

Prepare  against  her  the 


HISTORY. 

While  Cyrus  was  on  his 
march  to  Babylon,  we 
find  him  issuing  the  fol- 
lowing orders  to  his 
troops:  'Let  Artabazus 
lead  the  Persian  (Elam) 
shieldmen  and  archers; 
after  these,  let  Andramias 
the  Mede,  lead  the  Medi- 
an foot;  after  these,  Em- 
bas  the  Armenian  (Ara- 
rat) foot;  after  these,  Ar- 
tuchas,  the  Hyrcanians; 
after  these,  Thambradas, 
the  Sacian  foot ;  after 
these,  Damades,  the  Ca- 
dusians.'  'And  do  you  ail 
attend  ready  on  the  road 
to  Babylon,  each  of  you 
with  all  things  proper.' 
(Xenophon,  Cyrop.  B.  v. 
c.  iii.  38.) 

While  the  army  lay  at 
Babylon,  there  are  men- 
tioned among  his  soldiers, 


nations,  with  the  kings  of  in  addition  to  the  above, 

the  Medes,  the  captains  the  Phrygians,   Lydians, 

thereof  and  all  the  rulers  Arabians,  and  Cappado- 

thereof  (Jer.  li.  27-28).  cians  (lb.  B.  vii.  c.  v.  15). 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 


193 


The  Hebrew  name  Elam  corresponds  to  the  Greek 
Persia,  and  Ararat  and  Minni  to  Armenia  and  the 
neighboring  northern  countries;  the  locality  of  Ash- 
kenaz  is  less  certain. 

2.  The  river  to  be  dried  wp^  the  gates  to  he  left  open^ 
and  the  city  taken  by  surprise  during  a  night  of  revelry 
and  drunkenness. 

The  reader  should  recollect,  that  the  river  Eu- 
phrates passed  through  the  midst  of  Babylon;  and 
that  besides  the  external  wall,  there  was  a  wall  on 
each  side  of  the  river,  and  the  only  entrance  to  the 
city  from  the  river  was  by  brazen  gates,  which  were 
carefully  closed  every  night.  The  river  here  was  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  width  and  more  than  twelve  feet 
deep.  (Herodotus,  B.  i.  c.  180,  181). 

PROPHECY.  HISTORY. 

God  saith  to  the  deep,  Cyrus  placed  one  de- 
Be  dry,  and  I  will  dry  up     tachment    of    his   forces 


thy  rivers  (Isa.  xliv.  27). 
A  draught  is  upon  her 
waters  and  they  shall  be 
dried  up  (Jer.  1.  38). 

I  will  dry  up  her  sea  and 
make  her  springs  dry 
(Jer.  li.  36.) 

I  will  loose  the  loins  of 
kings  to  open  before  him 
the  two-leaved  gates,  and 
the  gates  shall  not  be  shut 
(Isaiah  xlv.  1). 

In   their  heat   I   will 
make  their  feasts,   and  I 
17 


where  the  river  first  en- 
ters the  city,  and  another 
where  it  leaves  it,  direct- 
ing them  to  enter  the 
channel,  and  attack  the 
town,  wherever  a  passage 
could  be  effected.  He 
pierced  the  bank  and  in- 
troduced the  river  into 
the  lake,  by  which  means 
the  bed  of  the  Euphrates 
became  sufficiently  shal- 
low for  the  object  in 
view.     The  Persians  in 


194 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 


will  make  them  drunken. 
And  I  will  make  drunk 
her  princes  and  her  wise 
men,  her  captains  and  her 
rulers  and  her  mighty 
men  (Jer.  li.  39,  57). 

The  night  of  my  plea- 
sure hath  he  turned  into 
fear  unto  me.  Prepare 
the  table,  watch  in  the 
watch-tower,  eat,  drink: 
arise  ye  princes,  anoint 
the  shield  (Isa.  xxi.  4,  5). 

Therefore  shall  evil 
come  upon  thee,  thou 
shalt  not  know  from 
whence  it  riseth;  and  mis- 
chief shall  fall  upon  thee, 
thou  shalt  not  be  able  to 
put  it  off;  and  desolation 
shall  come  upon  thee  sud- 
denly, which  thou  shalt 
not  know  (Isa.  xlvii.  11). 

But  these  two  things 
shall  come  to  thee  in  a 
moment,  in  one  day,  the 
loss  of  children  and  wid- 
owhood: they  shall  come 
upon  thee  in  their  perfec- 
tion, for  the  multitude  of 
thy  sorceries  and  for  the 
abundance  of  thine  en- 
chantments (Isa.  xlvii.  9). 


their  station  watched  the 
proper  opportunity,  and 
when  the  stream  had  so 
far  retired  as  not  to  be 
higher  than  their  thighs, 
they  entered  Babylon 
without  difficulty.  If  the 
besieged  had  either  been 
aware  of  the  designs  of 
Cyrus,  or  had  discovered 
the  project  before  its  ac- 
tual accomplishment,they 
might  have  effected  the 
total  destruction  of  these 
troops.  They  had  only 
to  secure  the  little  gates 
which  led  to  the  river, 
and  to  have  manned  the 
embankments  on  either 
side,  and  they  might  have 
enclosed  the  Persians  in 
a  net  from  which  they 
could  never  have  escaped. 
As  it  happened  they  were 
taken  by  surprise.  It  was 
a  day  of  festivity  among 
them,  and  whilst  the  citi- 
zens were  engaged  in 
dance  and  merriment, 
Babylon  was,  for  the  first 
time,  thus  taken!  (Herod- 
otus, i.  191), 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS.         195 

By  comparing  the  prophecy  with  the  history,  it 
will  appear  that  every  circumstance  known  to  the 
historian  after  the  event,  had  been  known  to  the 
prophets  long  before. 

I  will  here  subjoin  the  account  of  the  taking  of 
Babylon  as  given  by  Xenophon,  which  includes  some 
particulars  not  mentioned  by  Herodotus. 

Cyrus  'measuring  out  the  ground  around  the  wall, 
and  from  the  side  of  the  river, — he  dug  round  the 
wall  on  every  side  a  very  great  ditch.  When  he 
heard  they  were  celebrating  a  festival  in  Babylon,  in 
which  all  the  Babylonians  drank  and  revelled  the 
whole  night;  on  that  occasion,  as  soon  as  it  grew 
dark,  he  took  a  number  of  men  with  him,  and  opened 
the  ditches  into  the  river.  When  this  was  done,  the 
water  ran  off  in  the  night  by  the  ditches,  and  the  pas- 
sage of  the  river  through  the  city  became  passable.' 
'Then  making  those  that  attended  his  person,  both 
foot  and  horse,  to  go  down  into  the  dry  part  of  the 
river,  he  ordered  them  to  try  whether  the  channel  of 
the  river  was  passable.'  They  reported  that  it  was. 
Cyrus  then  addressed  his  troops,  and  concluded  by 
saying, '  Do  you  Gobryas  and  Gadatas*  show  us  the 
ways,  for  you  are  acquainted  with  them,  and  when 
we  are  got  in,  lead  us  the  readiest  way  to  the  palace. 
It  may  be  no  wonder,  perhaps,  said  they  that  were 
with  Gobryas,  if  the  gates  of  the  palace  are  open, 
for  the  city  seems  to  night  to  be  in  a  general  revel, 
but  we  shall  meet  with  a  guard  at  the  gates,  for  there 

*  These  were  two  Assyrian  noblemen  who  had  gone  over 
to  Cyrus  on  account  of  the  cruelties  practised  upon  them  by 
the  Babylonian  king. 


196         HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

is  always  one  set  there.'  '  When  this  was  said,  they 
marched;  and  of  those  that  they  met  with,  some  they 
fell  on  and  killed,  some  fled,  and  some  set  up  a  clam- 
or. They  that  were  with  Gobryas,  set  up  a  clamor 
w^ith  them,  as  if  they  were  revellers  themselves,  and 
marching  on  the  shortest  way  that  they  could,  they 
got  round  about  the  palace.'  'As  soon  as  the  noise 
and  clamor  began,  they  that  were  within,  perceiving 
the  disturbance,  and  the  king  commanding  them  to 
examine  what  the  matter  was,  ran  out,  throwing  open 
the  gates.  They  that  were  with  Gadatas,  as  soon  as 
they  saw  the  gates  loose,  broke  in,  pressing  forward 
on  the  runaways,  and  dealing  their  blows  among 
them,  they  came  up  to  the  king,  and  found  him  now 
in  a  standing  posture  with  his  sw^ord  drawn.  They 
that  were  with  Gadatas  and  Gobryas  being  many  in 
number,  mastered  him;  they  likewise  that  were  with 
him  were  killed.'  '  Gadatas  and  Gobryas  then  came 
up,  and  having  first  paid  their  adoration  to  the  gods, 
for  the  revenge  they  had  had  on  their  impious  king, 
they  then  kissed  the  hands  and  feet  of  Cyrus,  shed- 
ding many  tears  in  the  midst  of  their  joy  and  satis- 
faction.' (Cyropaed.  B.  vii.  c.  5.) 

The  death  of  the  king,  as  described  by  Xenophon, 
had  been  predicted  by  the  prophet  in  these  words: 

'But  thou  art  cast  out  of  thy  grave  as  an  abomina- 
ble branch,  and  as  the  raiment  of  those  that  are  slain, 
thrust  through  with  the  sword,  that  go  down  to  the 
stones  of  the  pit;  as  a  carcass  trodden  under  feet' 
(Isaiah  xiv.  19). 

The  joy  occasioned  by  his  death  was  predicted 
with  equal  clearness. 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 


197 


'The  whole  earth  is  at  rest,  and  is  quiet;  they  break 
forth  into  singing.  Yea,  the  fir-trees  rejoice  at  thee, 
and  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  saying,  Since  thou  art 
laid  down,  no  feller  is  come  up  against  us'  (Isaiah 
xiv.  7,  8). 

3.  The  place  to  be  forever  uninhabited^  a  dwelling  of 
ivild  beasts,  and  a  place  of  stagnant  waters* 

PROPHECY.  HISTORY. 

And  Babylon,  the  glory  'The  Persians  destroyed 
of  kingdoms,  the  beauty     a  part  of  the  city,  time 


of  the  Chaldees'  excellen- 
cy, shall  be  as  when  God 
overthrew  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah. 

It  shall  never  be  inhab- 
ited, neither  shall  it  be 
dwelt  in  from  generation 
to  generation ;  neither 
shall  the  Arabian  pitch 
tent  there;  neither  shall 
the  shepherds  make  their 
fold  there. 


17^ 


and  the  negligence  of  the 
Macedonians  destroyed  a 
part.'  '  It  is  now  almost 
entirely  deserted,  so  that 
we  may  safely  say  of  it 
what  a  certain  poet  said 
of  Megalopolis,  the  great 
city  of  Arcadia:  the  great 
city  is  now  a  vast  soli- 
tude.' (Strabo,  B.  xvi). 
Babylon,  once  the  great- 
est of  all  cities  which  the 
sun  ever  looked  upon, has 
now  nothing  left  but  the 
walls.  (Pausanias,  B.  viii. 
c.  33). 

I  have  learned  from  a 
certain  Elamite  brother, 
who  came  from  those 
parts  and  now  lives  as  a 
monk  in  Jerusalem,  that 
the  royal  hunting  grounds 


198 


HEBREW  AND    PAGAN    PROPHETS. 


But  wild  beasts  of  the 
desert  shall  lie  there ;  and 
their  houses  shall  be  full 
of  doleful  creatures;  and 
owls  shall  dwell  there, 
and  satyrs  shall  dance 
there. 

And  the  wild  beasts  of 
the  island  shall  lay  in  their 
desolate  houses,  and  dra- 
gons in  their  pleasant 
palaces  (Isa.  xiii.  20-22). 

And  Babylon  shall  be- 
come heaps,  a  dwelling 
place  for  dragons,  an  as- 
tonishment and  a  hissing, 
without  an  inhabitant. 
They  shall  roar  together 
like  lions ;  they  shall  yell 
as  lions'  whelps  (Jer.  li. 
37,  38). 


are  in  Babylon;  and  that 
wild  beasts  of  all  kinds 
are  kept  within  its  walls.' 
(Jerome  Com.  in  Is.  c.  1 3). 
'I  soon  distinguished 
that  the  causes  of  our 
alarm  were  two  or  three 
majestic  lions,  taking  the 
air  upon  the  heights  of  the 
pyramid.'  'We  then  rode 
close  up  to  the  ruins;  and 
I  had  once  more  the  grat- 
ification of  ascending  the 
awful  sides  of  the  tower 
of  Babel.  In  my  progress 
I  stopped  several  times  to 
look  at  the  broad  prints 
of  the  feet  of  the  lions,  left 
plain  in  the  clayey  soil; 
and  by  the  track,  I  saw 
that  if  we  had  chosen  to 
rouse  such  royal  game, 
we  need  not  go  far  to  find 
their  lair.  But,  while  thus 
actually  contemplating 
these  savage  tenants,  wan- 
dering amidst  the  towers 
of  Babylon,  and  bedding 
themselves  within  the 
deep  cavities  of  her  once 
magnificent  temple,  I 
could  not  help  reflecting 


HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 


199 


1  will  also  make  it  a 
possession  for  the  bittern, 
and  pools  of  water;  and 
I  will  sweep  it  with  the 
besom  of  destruction, 
saith  the  Lord  of  hosts 
(Isaiah  xiv.  23). 


on  how  faithfully  the  va- 
rious prophecies  had  been 
fulfilled.'  (Sir  R.  K.  Por- 
ter). 

'  The  tower  is  still  to  be 
seen  and  is  half  a  league 
in  diameter,  but  is  so  ruin- 
ous, so  low,  and  so  full 
of  venomous  creatures, 
which  lodge  in  holes  made 
by  them  in  the  rubbish, 
that  no  one  durst  ap- 
proach nearer  to  it  than 
within  half  a  league,  ex- 
cept during  two  months 
in  the  winter,  when  these 
animals  never  stir  out  of 
their  holes.'   (Rauwolf). 

'  Not  only  great  part  of 
this  plain  is  little  better 
than  a  swamp,  but  large 
deposits  of  the  waters  are 
left  stagnant  in  the  hol- 
lows between  the  ruins; 
again  verifying  the  threat 
denounced  against  it.'  (Sir 
R.  K.  Porter). 


I  have  been  thus  minute  in  pointing  out  the  fulfil- 
ment of  this  prophecy,  because  it  can  be  taken  as  a 
fair  representative  of  the  whole  class  of  the  biblical 
prophecies,  as  contrasted  with  the  heathen  oracles 
of  which  some  examples  have  been  given.    For  fur- 


200         HEBREW  AND  PAGAN  PROPHETS. 

ther  particulars  the  reader  may  consult  Lowth's 
Isaiah,  Newton  on  the  Prophecies  (Diss,  x.),  and  Rol- 
lin's  Ancient  History  (B.  iv.  chap.  i.  art.  2).  It  was 
for  her  unexampled  licentiousness,  her  pride  and  her 
cruelty,  that  Babylon  was  thus  laid  desolate,  as  the 
prophets  repeatedly  declared.  (See  Robinson's  Cal- 
met.  Art.  Babylon). 

The  most  recent  and  accurate  observer  of  the  stu- 
pendous ruins  of  this  ancient  city  is  Sir  Robert  Ker 
Porter,  who  visited  them  in  1820.  He  found  them  in 
all  respects  confirming  the  accuracy  of  the  prophetic 
writings.  (Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  305-405). 

Some  of  the  earliest  and  most  minute  of  the  proph- 
ecies are  in  a  course  of  literal  accomplishment  even 
at  the  present  day.  For  example,  the  remarkable 
predictions  of  Moses  respecting  the  Jewish  nation. 
(Deut.  xxviii). 

The  predictions  respecting  the  sufferings  and 
death  of  Christ  (Isaiah  lii.  13-liii.  12);  and  those  of 
Christ  respecting  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (Mat- 
thew xxiv.),  are  discussed  by  Dr.  Paley  with  his  usual 
skill  and  irresistible  power  of  demonstration  in  his 
Evidences,  (Part  ii.  chap.  1). 

It  would  carry  me  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  pre- 
sent work  to  go  into  an  extended  statement  of  the 
fulfilment  of  scripture  prophecies.  Nor  is  it  neces- 
sary, for  my  only  object  in  this  chapter  has  been,  as 
stated  in  the  outset,  by  contrasting  the  Hebrew  with 
the  heathen  prophets,  to  show  that  the  former,  and 
they  only,  have  just  claim  to  divine  inspiration.  The 
specimens  already  given  are,  I  suppose,  abundantly 
sufficient  to  accomplish  this  purpose. 


CHAPTER    ELEVENTH 


DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION. 


I.    IDEAS    OF    DIVINE    INFLUENCE    IN    THE    EARLIEST    AGES. 

Though  the  human  race  is  depraved,  the  Divine 
image  is  not  entirely  effaced;  and  under  all  circum- 
stances man  has  felt  his  relationship  to  God  and  the 
spiritual  world.  In  the  infancy  of  society,  every 
change  in  nature  is  attributed  to  the  immediate  in- 
terposition of  some  superior  invisible  power.  The 
rolling  thunder,  the  flashes  of-  lightning,  the  hail,  the 
storm,  are  all  tokens  of  a  present  and  majestic  Deity. 

Equally  strong  is  this  intuitive  reference  to  spirit- 
ual power  in  the  gentler  phenomena  of  nature.  No 
zephyr  breathes,  no  tree  moves  its  branches,  no  wa- 
terfall murmurs,  without  awakening  in  unsophisticat- 
ed man,  the  idea  of  a  breathing,  moving,  conscious 
spirit.  Every  object  has  life  and  intelligence;  every 
attractive  and  every  gloomy  spot  is  the  residence  of 
some  benevolent,  or  some  terrific  God;  and  man  feels 
himself  walking  in  the  midst  of  numberless  invisible 
beings  with  powers  far  above  his  own,  who  take  a 
deep  interest  in  all  that  concerns  him,  and  are  con- 
stantly watching  his  footsteps  for  evil  or  for  good. 


202  DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION. 

So  with  the  phenomena  of  intellect.  Every  useful 
invention;  every  superior  exertion  of  skill  or  ingen- 
uity; every  good  law;  every  brilliant  thought;  every 
glowing  and  eloquent  expression;  is  attributed  to  the 
invisible  power  which  employs  the  living,  visible  man, 
as  the  instrument  to  accomplish  its  own  mysterious 
purposes.  As  the  laws  of  matter  and  mind  become 
more  developed  and  better  understood,  the  number  of 
invisible  agencies  gradually  decreases,  till  man  arrives 
at  the  idea  of  one  great  First  Cause,  governing  the 
universe  which  he  himself  has  created,  through  the 
medium  of  certain  established  laws — or  the  Creator 
is  even  legislated  out  of  his  own  world,  and  an  ab- 
stract principle  is  made  to  usurp  the  throne  of  the 
Maker  of  heaven  and  earth!  Who  would  not  pre- 
fer the  living  spirituality  of  the  pastoral  patriarch, 
who  could  see  an  angel  in  every  flower,  and  hear  his 
voice  in  every  rill;  who  beheld  God  in  every  cloud, 
and  found  for  him  a  dwellingplace  in  every  moun- 
tain and  grove — to  the  cold  atheism  of  the  philoso- 
phic naturalist,  who  can  see  nothing  on  earth  but 
particles  of  matter  in  varied  combinations,  and  no- 
thing in  the  heavens  but  gases  and  lifeless  solids? 
This  universal  feeling  after  God,  and  longing  for 
communion  with  him,  is  itself  a  proof  of  the  existence 
of  God.  For  every  sentiment  which  results  from  our 
constitution,  has  something  in  nature,  corresponding 
to  it;  and  every  want  which  the  human  soul  feels, 
has  somewhere  in  the  universe  an  object  appropriate 
to  its  gratification. 

The  numerous  instances  of  pretended  inspiration, 
with  which  the  history  of  the  world  abounds,  and  the 


DOCTRINE   OF    INSPIRATION.  203 

easy  credulity  with  which  they  have  been  received,    |  ^'^,^ 
are  a  strong  proof  of  the  necessity  and  actual  occur-    I  »Vv'  "^ 
rence  of  real  inspiration;  as  counterfeit  money  is  of      "^'      "v 
the  existence  and  value  of  genuine  coin.     Without 
light  there  can  be  no  shadow,  and  there  is  no  error      c^     "^ 
without  a  corresponding  truth.  "*    ^ 

All  cultivated  nations  have  possessed  writings 
which  they  supposed  to  be  inspired.  It  is  the  object 
of  this  chapter  to  develope  the  various  theories  of 
inspiration  which  have  at  different  periods  been  ex- 
tensively prevalent  in  the  world.  "1 

II.    IDEAS  OF  INSPIRATION  AMONG  THE  GREEKS  AND    ROMANS. 

The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  supposed  that 
nothing  good  or  great  could  be  effected  without  im- 
mediate divine  inspiration:  that  this  inspiration  was 
of  such  a  kind,  that  the  inspired  person  was  passive 
under  it,  all  voluntary  action  suspended,  and  his  or- 
gans used  as  the  instruments  of  the  deity  within. — 
Hence  the  praise  or  blame  of  what  was  done  by  the 
influence  of  inspiration,  belonged  only  to  the  inspir- 
ing God,  and  not  at  all  to  the  man,  who  was  merely 
a  passive  instrument,  not  a  voluntary  agent. 

A  few  passages  from  their  most  distinguished  wri- 
ters will  set  their  views  on  this  subject  clearly  before 
us.  Homer,  the  most  ancient  of  their  so-called  in- 
spired men,  has  many  declarations  like  the  following: 

Odyss.  i.  200.  Minerva,  in  the  character  of  Men- 
tes,  says  to  Telemachus,  'I  shall  prophesy  just  what 
the  immortal  gods  put  into  my  mind;'  and  in  xv.  172, 
Helen,  in  speaking  to  Menelaus  make  use  of  the  same 
words.     Odyss.  i.  347,  Penelope  requests  the  bard 


204  DOCTRINE    OF   INSPIRATION. 

Phemius  not  to  make  the  Trojan  war  the  subject  of 
his  song,  and  is  checked  by  Telemachus,  who  says: 
'My  mother,  why  do  you  blame  the  bard  for  singing 
whatever  comes  into  his  mind;  the  bards  are  not  re- 
sponsible, but  Jupiter  is  responsible,  who  dispenses  to 
each  recipient  mortal  whatever  he  pleases.' 

It  must  be  recollected  that  the  gods  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  were  imperfect  and  passionate,  and  of- 
ten unjust  and  cruel;  and  accordingly  their  inspira- 
tion partook  of  the  same  character.  Infallible  inspi- 
ration can  come  only  from  an  infallible  God. 

Odyss.  xxii.  346.  Phemius  himself  says  to  Ulysses; 
'  God  puts  into  my  mind  all  sorts  of  songs.' 

In  the  vSibylline  oracles,  one  of  the  inspired  speak- 
ers says:  'I  know  nothing  what  I  say,  but  declare 
each  thing  God  commands  me  to  declare.' 

To  turn  from  the  poets  to  the  philosophers,  Plato 
puts  the  following  sentiment  into  the  mouth  of  Socra- 
tes: 'The  poet  cannot  compose  nor  the  soothsayer 
prophesy,  unless  he  is  inspired  by  God,  and  trans- 
ported, as  it  were,  beyond  himself.  He  then  loses 
sight  of  the  rules  of  art,  and  is  borne  away  by  the 
divine  impulse.  God  deprives  him  of  his  own  con- 
sciousness and  reflection,  and  employs  him  as  his 
messenger.  It  is  no  longer  he  who  speaks,  but  God 
who  speaks  through  him.'    (Dial.  Jon.) 

In  another  dialogue  Plato  remarks,  that '  w^e  may 
justly  call  poets  and  prophets  divine^  because  they 
perform  many  and  important  things  which  they  do 
and  declare,  while  they  themselves  have  no  under- 
standing of  them.' 


DOCTRINE   OF   INSPIRATION.  205 

Among  the  Romans,  Cicero  frequently  expresses 
sentiments  of  the  same  kind.  He  says  that  poets 
*were  inspired  by  a  certain  divine  spirit:'  that  they 
were  called  'sacred,  because  they  seemed  to  be  com- 
mended to  us,  as  it  were,  by  the  office  and  gift  of  the 
gods;'  and  that  'universally  they  were  called  and 
esteemed  sacred.'  (Orat.  pr.  Arch.  Poet). 

In  another  place  he  says:  'No  man  ever  became 
great  without  a  certain  divine  inspiration'  {afflatus), 
(De  Nat.  Deorum,  ii.  66). 

III.  IDEAS    OF    THE   ANCIENT    HEBREWS. 

The  ideas  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  inspiration 
which  prevailed  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  were 
very  similar  to  what  we  have  just  observed  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  with  this  remarkable  differ- 
ence: that  as  the  God  of  the  Jews  is  a  perfect,  infal- 
lible being,  so  his  inspiration  is  always  perfect  and 
infallible;  and  there  is  no  room  for  that  complaining 
against  the  gods,  so  frequent  in  Greek  and  Roman 
writers.  Of  course  we  speak  only  of  the  uninspired 
Jews;  for  the  biblical  representations  of  this  subject 
are  to  be  considered  in  the  next  chapter. 

In  the  Apochryphal  books,  which  were  written 
during  the  interval  between  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  New,  we  find  passages  like  the  following: 

The  Wisdom  of  Solomon  speaks  of  the  sons  of 
God  'by  whom  the  incorrupt  light  of  the  law  was 
given  to  the  world'  (xviii.  4). 

Tobit  declares,  that  he  went  up  to  Jerusalem  lo 
the  feasts,  'as  it  was  written  for  all  Israel,  in  an  ever- 
lasting commandment'  (i.  6). 
18 


206  DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION, 

Ecclesiasticus  xxiv.  Wisdom  says  of  herself:  4 
am  the  mother  of  fair  love,  and  fear,  and  knov/ledge, 
and  holy  hope'  (verse  17). 

'All  these  things  are  the  book  of  the  covenant  of 
the  most  high  God,  the  law  which  Moses  command- 
ed, an  inheritance  to  the  congregations  of  Jacob.' 
(verse  23). 

'He  fiUeth  all  things  with  his  wisdom,  as  Phison 
and  as  Tigris  in  the  days  of  the  new  fruits,  he  maketh 
understanding  to  abound  like  Euphrates,  and  like 
Jordan  in  the  days  of  harvest,  he  maketh  instruction 
appear  as  light,  and  like  Gihon  in  the  days  of  vintage 
(verses  25-27). 

Wisdom  continues:  'I  will  yet  make  instruction 
shine  as  the  morning,  and  send  forth  her  light  afar 
off;  I  will  yet  pour  out  doctrine  as  prophecy,  and 
leave  it  for  future  ages  forever'  (verses  32,  33). 

In  these  declarations  of  uninspired  Jews,  we  per- 
ceive ideas  of  the  fulness  and  power  of  inspiration 
much  like  those  which  prevailed  among  the  Greeks; 
but  the  moral  tone,  how  much  more  elevated!  the 
religious  feeling,  how  clearly  characteristic!  In  the 
Greek  inspiration  we  see  nothing  but  intellect;  proud, 
unsanctified  intellect;  but  in  the  Jewish,  w^e  at  once 
recognize  the  angel-form  of  religion.  The  one  was 
the  mere  child  of  earth,  the  other  the  daughter  of 
heaven. 

In  reference  to  the  reluctant  predictions  of  Balaam 
respecting  the  future  glory  of  Israel,  Josephus  says: 

'Thus  did  Balaam  speak  by  inspiration,  as  not  be- 
ing in  his  own  power,  but  moved  to  say  what  he  did 
by  the  divine  Spirit'  (Ant.  iv.  6:  5);  and  represents 
Balaam  as  saying  to  the  Moabitish  king;  '0  Balak,  if 


DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION.  207 

thou  rightly  .considerest  this  whole  matter,  canst  thou 
suppose  that  it  is  in  our  power  to  be  silent,  or  to  say 
anything  when  the  Spirit  of  God  seizes  upon  us?  For 
he  puts  such  w^ords  as  he  pleases  into  our  mouths, 
and  such  discourses  as  we  are  not  ourselves  conscious 
of.  Those  who  take  upon  them  to  foretell  the  affairs 
of  mankind,  as  from  their  own  abilities,  are  entirely 
unable  to  do  it,  or  to  forbear  to  utter  what  God  sug- 
gests to  them,  or  to  offer  violence  to  his  w^ill;  for 
when  he  enters  into  us,  nothing  that  we  say  is  our 
own.' 

The  same  sentiments  are  everywhere  found  in 
Philo. 

'The  prophet  utters  nothing  that  is  his  own,  but 
every  thing  from  another.  He  is  the  organ  of  God 
to  utter  sounds,  being  touched  and  struck  by  him 
invisibly.'  (De  Leg.  ii.  343). 

'The  prophets  are  the  interpreters  of  God,  he  using 
their  organs  to  make  known  whatever  he  pleases.' 
(De  Mon.  i.  222). 

He  also  says,  that,  'when  the  divine  spirit  enters, 
the  human  understanding  departs,  and  forsakes  the 
citadel  of  the  soul.'  (Eichhorn's  Introduction,  i.  127). 

IV.    IDEAS    OF    THE    PRIMITIVE    CHRISTIANS. 

The  ideas  of  inspiration,  which  prevailed  in  the 
primitive  christian  church,  were  practical  rather  than 
theoretical.  Till  sharp  controversy  brought  the 
teachers  of  Christianity  to  discussion  and  definition, 
the  notion  that  the  scriptures  were  inspired,  was  a 
matter  of  feeling,  rather  than  of  speculation.  We 
generally  find,  however,  among  the  early  fathers,  the 


208  DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION. 

same  sort  of  opinions,  which  had  previously  prevail- 
ed, though  somew^hat  modified  and  established  on 
more  rational  grounds.  They  said  the  sacred  writers 
were  the  scribes  and  the  amanuenses  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  writing  down  the  very  words  which  God  dic- 
tated. Those  were  pronounced  unbelievers,  who 
did  not  acknowledge  that  the  scriptures  were  spoken 
by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

Athenagoras  remarks  that  Hhe  Holy  Spirit  moved 
the  mouths  of  the  sacred  teachers,  as  musical  instru- 
ments are  moved;  that  he  breathes  into  them  as  the 
flute-player  breathes  into  the  flute.'  (Leg.  36). 

Justin  Martyr,  describing  the  effect  of  inspiration, 
says  it  is  like  the  'plectrum  striking  the  lyre  or  the 
harp.'  (Cohort.  9). 

Augustine,  in  speaking  of  the  Latin  translation  of 
the  bible,  says,  'If  I  find  anything  in  it  which  appears 
contrary  to  truth,  I  shall  suppose  nothing  else  than 
that  the  copy  is  inaccurate,  or  the  translator  mistak- 
en, or  that  I  do  not  understand  the  passage.'  (Ep.  97). 

That  the  church  fathers,  however,  did  not  adhere 
strictly  to  the  Greek  and  Jewish  notions,  but  suppos- 
ed that  the  inspired  men  were  still  in  the  complete 
exercise  of  their  own  faculties,  is  manifest  from  sev- 
eral passages  of  their  writings.  Thus  Augustine,  in 
speaking  of  John,  says,  'I  dare  say  that  perhaps 
John  himself  did  not  speak  the  thing  as  it  is,  but  as 
he  could;  because  he,  a  man, spoke  concerning  God, 
and  though  inspired  by  God,  was  nevertheless  a  man. 
Because  an  inspired  man  says  not  all  which  is,  but 
what  man  can  say.  (In  Joh.  Tr.  7). 


DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION.  209 

Jerome  on  Gal.  v.  12,  says,  'It  is  no  wonder  if  the 
apostle,  as  a  man,  and  still  shut  up  in  a  vessel  of  flesh, . 
should  for  once  have  said  this.' 

Origen  comparing  Luke  iv.  1,  and  Acts  ii.  4,  where 
it  is  said  that  Jesus  and  the  apostles  were  full  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  observes,  'See  that  you  do  not  suppose 
the  apostles  to  be  equal  to  the  Saviour;  but  know 
that  both  Jesus  and  the  apostles,  and  any  other  one 
of  the  saints,  is  filled  with  the  Holy  Spirit,  according 
to  the  measure  of  each  individual  capacity.'  (Horn, 
in  Lev.  29). 

The  church  fathers  were  all  agreed  that  the  Holy 
Scriptures  contained  the  whole  of  the  revealed  w^ill 
of  God,  and  were  the  only  infallible  guide  in  matters 
of  faith  and  duty;  and  that  they  were  written  by 
men  fully  inspired  for  the  purpose,  but  still  in  the 
exercise  of  their  ordinary  powers  as  men.  In  ad- 
mitting this  last  idea,  which  is  entirely  scriptural,  they 
made  a  very  important  advance  on  the  classic  and 
Jewish  view^s;  though  they  did  not  turn  their  atten- 
tion  particularly  to  the  investigation  of  the  mode  or 
the  extent  of  inspiration. 

During  the  subsequent  ages,  until  the  commence 
ment  of  the  Reformation,  but  little  was  done  on  the 
subject  of  inspiration;  for  while  the  papal  power 
held  unlimited  sway,  the  bible  wp^s  only  a  secondarv 
authority;  audit  v/as  not  of  much  practical  impor- 
tance whether  it  had  originally  been  given  by  inspi- 
ration or  not,  since  the  infallible  pontiff  was  then  the 
only  authoritative  interpreter  of  the  will  of  God. 


18^ 


210  DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION. 

V.     IDEAS    OF    THE    REFORMERS    AND    THEIR    SUCCESSORS. 

When  the  authority  of  the  pope  began  to  be  ques- 
tioned, and  the  bible  to  be  appealed  to  as  the  suffi- 
cient and  only  rule  of  faith  and  practice,  the  ques- 
tion of  inspiration  became  one  of  vital  importance; 
and  from  that  time  to  the  present,  it  has  been  a  subject 
of  earnest  and  zealous  discussion,  and  it  is  only  since 
the  reformation  that  we  find  very  definite  and  com- 
plete theories  respecting  the  mode  and  extent  of  di- 
vine inspiration.  A  few  of  the  more  important  the- 
ories are  subjoined,  premising  that  I  understand  by 
theory  a  general  statement  made  for  the  purpose  of 
systematizing  a  certain  number  of  facts  and  account- 
ing for  their  occurrence, 

I.  One  of  the  earliest  is,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  dic- 
tated the  sacred  books  to  the  writers,  word  for  word^ 
as  we  have  them  in  the  original  languages.  To  this 
opinion  Ernesti  adhered,  and  assigned  as  a  reason, 
that  as  thought  cannot  be  communicated  without 
language,  so,  if  the  Holy  Spirit  communicated  the 
thoughts  of  the  bible,  he  probably  gave  the  words 
also.  Admitting  the  premises,  I  do  not  see  how  one 
can  avoid  the  conclusion. 

But  words  are  not  in  all  cases  necessary  to  the 
communication  of  thought;  the  Spirit  of  God  can 
commune  with  the  spirit  of  man  without  the  inter- 
vention of  arbitrary  signs;  and  to  this  theory  of  in- 
spiration, there  are  the  following  very  serious  objec- 
tions: 

1,  It  is  not  needed  to  account  for  the  facts.  Many 
of  the  statements  of  the  bible  are  of  such  a  kind, 


DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION.  211 

that  they  could  have  been  written  just  as  well  with- 
out a  verbal  inspiration  as  with;  and  since  it  is  the 
whole  object  of  a  theory  to  make  a  statement  which 
will  account  for  all  the  facts,  a  theory  which  goes  so 
much  beyond  facts,  is  unphilosophical. 

2.  The  style  of  the  bible  is  exceedingly  various, 
and  each  writer  has  his  own  peculiarities,  and  there 
are  the  same  characteristic  diversities  which  we  find 
in  any  equal  number  of  men  uninspired. 

3.  The  writers  themselves  claim  no  such  inspira- 
tion. 

4.  They  quote  from  each  other  and  from  uninspir- 
ed writers,  and  profess  to  make  diligent  use  of  all 
the  ordinary  means  of  information  within  their  reach. 

5.  When  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  quote 
a  passage  of  the  Old,  they  seldom  or  never  quote  it 
in  the  exact  words  of  the  original;  and  when  two 
writers  quote  the  same  passage,  they  never  quote  it 
in  precisely  the  same  manner. 

6.  The  different  writers  in  giving  an  account  of 
the  same  transaction,  always  do  it  in  different 
langauge. 

7.  In  exhibiting  the  same  discourse,  they  always 
do  it  in  different  language.  (Compare  p.  115,  116). 

The  truth  of  the  above  statements  will  be  per- 
fectly obvious  to  any  one  who  compares  the  quota- 
tions in  the  New  Testament  with  the  corresponding 
passages  in  the  Old;  and  who  reads  the  gospels  in  a 
harmony  and  compares  the  different  accounts  of  the 
same  transactions  and  discourses. 

II.  Another  theory  is,  that  the  great  fundamental 
truths  only  of  the  christian  system  were  given  by 


212  DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION. 

inspiration;  while  the  less  important  statements,  the 
arguments,  the  narratives,  the  illustrations,  &c.  are 
of  human  origin.  This  was  the  sentiment  of  Dr. 
Priestly,  and  is  the  theory  of  Unitarian  and  Socinian 
writers  generally.     The  objections  to  this  are: 

1.  There  is  no  definiteness  or  utility  in  it. 
What  are  the  fundamental  truths  of  Christianity. 

and  which  the  less  important  statements?  There 
will  be  as  many  different  answers  to  this  question  as 
there  are  minds  to  answer  it;  and  on  this  theory, 
the  most  important  question  to  be  decided  by  reve- 
lation, must  be  decided  before  revelation  can  be 
consulted. 

2.  It  entirely  destroys  the  authority  of  the  bible, 
which  claims  to  be  an  authoritative  book  in  religious 
matters;  and  therefore  it  cannot  be  true  if  the  bible 
itself  be  true. 

III.  Another  theory  is,  that  those  parts  of  the  bible, 
whose  moral  tendency  is  obviously  good,  are  to  be 
received  as  divinely  inspired,  and  others  not.  This 
sentiment  is  maintained  by  the  German  philosopher 
Kant,  and  many  of  his  followers. 

The  objections  to  it  are: 

1.  It  strips  the  bible  of  all  authority;  for  indepen- 
dently of  the  authority  of  revelation,  no  two  men  per- 
haps would  ever  think  alike  as  to  the  moral  tendency 
of  all  parts  of  the  bible.  It  is  nothing  less  than  a  con- 
venient mode  of  acknowledging  the  inspiration  of 
the  bible  in  general,  and  denying  it  entirely  in  all  the 
particulars. 

2.  It  involves  the  absurdity  of  supposing,  that  the 
great  thing  which  revelation  is  intended  to  accom- 


DOCTRINE    OF  INSPIRATION.  213 

plish,  that  is,  the  communicating  of  right  notions  of 
moral  good,  must  be  done  without  revelation,  before 
we  can  determine  what  is  revelation,  and  what  is 
not. 

IV.  Another  theory  is,  that  those  parts  of  the  bible 
which  the  writers  expressly  declare  to  be  from  God, 
are  to  be  regarded  as  divine,  and  the  rest  as  human. 

This  is  contrary  to  the  whole  view  of  the  subject 
given  by  the  sacred  writers  themselves.  In  quoting 
from  each  other  and  in  enforcing  their  own  state- 
ments, they  make  no  distinction  of  this  kind,  but  say 
expressly,  ^^Aai  all  scripture  is  given  by  inspiration 
of  God,  and  is  profitable  for  doctrine,  (1  Tim.  iii.  16), 
and  that  holy  men  of  God  spake  as  they  were  moved 
by  the  Holy  Ghost  (2  Pet.  i.  21). 

V.  A  more  rational  and  consistent  theory  than 
either  of  the  preceding,  is  the  one  by  Claude  Frassen, 
a  Franciscan  monk  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
which  was  adopted  by  Dr.  Doddridge,  and  which  in 
substance,  has  been  the  prevalent  one  ever  since 
among  the  best  theologians,  both  Catholic  and  Pro- 
testant. According  to  this  theory,  there  are  three 
degrees  of  inspiration. 

1.  The  first  and  highest  is  the  revelation  of  things 
before  unknown  to  the  sacred  writers.  This  was 
called  inspiratio  antecedens. 

2.  The  second  is,  the  perfect  security  against  error 
which  God  granted  to  the  sacred  writers,  in  the  ex- 
hibition of  doctrines  and  facts  with  which  they  were 
before  acquainted,  or  inspiratio  concomitans. 

3  The  third  is  divine  authority  conferred  upon 
writings  originally  composed  without  inspiration,  by 


214  DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION. 

the  approbation  of  inspired  men.      This  he  called 
inspiralio  consequens. 

This  theory  corresponds  with  all  the  facts,  and 
secures  the  authority  of  the  bible.  The  only  objec- 
tion to  it  is  its  prolixity  and  needless  minuteness. 

VI.  Another  and  still  better,  because  more  simple 
theory  is,  that  each  of  the  sacred  writers  enjoyed 
just  so  much  of  the  divine  influence  as  was  necessary 
to  secure  the  particular  purpose  intended  and  no 
more. 

As  this,  however,  is  somewhat  indefinite  I  much 
prefer  the  following  : 

VII.  The  theory  adopted  by  Michaelis  and  men- 
tioned in  chapter  first,  namely,  a  simple  distinction 
between  i^evelation  and  inspiration. 

Revelation  is  defined  as  the  act  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
by  which  truths  before  unknown  are  communicated. 

Inspiration,  the  act  by  w^hich  not  only  new  truths 
are  given,  but  by  which  men  are  excited  to  publish 
for  the  instruction  of  others,  truths  already  known, 
and  are  guarded  from  all  error  in  doing  it. 

Thus  it  was  revealed  to  the  ancient  prophets  that 
the  Messiah  should  come.  But  they  were  inspired  to 
publish  this  fact  for  the  benefit  of  others.  (Compare 
p.  13-15)'. 

The  views  of  inspiration  now  most  generally  en- 
tertained by  evangelical  theologians  in  this  country 
and  England  are,  I  suppose,  in  pretty  exact  accord- 
ance with  the  following  statements  of  Dr.  Dwight 
(Theol.  ii.  371). 

'The  inspiration  of  the  apostles  I  suppose  to  have 
consisted  in  the  following  things: 


DOCTRINE   OF   INSPIRATION.  215 

1.  That  they  received  immediately  from  God  every 
part  of  the  christian  dispensation  which  they  did  not 
know  by  other  means. 

2.  That  they  were  in  the  same  manner  furnished 
with  a  foreknowledge  of  future  events. 

3.  That  in  things  which  they  did  otherwise  know 
partially,  the  deficiencies  of  their  knowledge  were 
in  the  same  manner  supplied. 

4.  That  those  things  which  they  had  once  known 
and  which  were  parts  of  the  christian  dispensation, 
were  by  divine  power  brought  distinctly  and  fully  to 
their  remembrance. 

5.  That  they  were  directed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
the  selection  of  just  such  things,  and  such  only,  and 
to  precisely  such  a  manner  of  exhibiting  them,  as 
should  be  true,  just,  most  useful  to  mankind,  and  most 
agreeable  to  the  divine  wisdom. 

6.  That  each  one  was  left  so  far  to  his  own  man- 
ner of  writing  or  speaking,  as  that  the  style  was 
strictly  his  own;  and  yet  that  the  phraseology  used 
by  him  in  this  very  style,  was  so  directed  and  con- 
trolled by  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  to  lead  him  to  the  most 
exact  and  useful  exhibition  of  divine  truth;  his  own 
words  being,  in  this  important  sense,  words  not  de- 
vised by  human  wisdom,  but  taught  by  the  Holy 
Ghost.     And, 

7.  That  each  inspired  man  w^as,  as  to  his  preach- 
ing or  his  writing,  absolutely  preserved  from  error.- 

'All  these  particulars  cannot  be  applied  in  the 
same  degree,  and  some  of  them  cannot  be  applied  at 
ail,  lo  all  the  inspired  preachers;  but  in  my  view, 
every  such  preacher  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  inspira- 


216  DOCTRINE    OF    INSPIRATION. 

tion  so  far  as  he  needed  them  to  enable  him  to  preach 
the  gospel  truly  and  usefully  to  mankind;  so  far  as  to 
preserve  him  from  false  narratives,  erroneous  doc- 
trines, and  vi^rong  or  useless  precepts.' 

VI.    CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 

In  concluding,  I  would  just  allude  to  the  question 
which  is  sometimes  asked,  whether  an  inspired  man 
can  distingish  the  thoughts  which  are  given  by  inspi- 
ration from  those  which  arise  in  the  natural  opera- 
tions of  his  own  mind? 

Undoubtedly  he  can,  for  this  is  necessary  to  pre- 
vent his  deceiving  himself  and  others.  But  how? 
The  mode  cannot  be  communicated  to  those  who 
have  never  been  inspired — any  more  than  the  ideas 
of  a  sixth  sense^  or  the  mode  in  which  pure  spirits 
communicate  thought — to  those  who  have  but  five 
senses,  and  have  never  existed  as  disembodied  spirits. 

The  reality,  the  benefit,  and  the  absolute  necessity 
of  inspiration  are  not  at  all  affected  by  the  variety  of 
theories  adopted  in  respect  to  its  mode  and  extent. 
The  most  common  and  useful  things  are  often  the 
most  difficult  of  philosophical  comprehension,andgive 
rise  to  the  most  perplexing  variety  of  theories. 
What  more  simple,  more  common,  more  useful,  or 
more  absolutely  necessary,  than  light  and  heat?  Yet 
what  more  obstinately  resists  philosophical  analysis? 
What  has  given  rise  to  a  greater  variety  of  contra- 
dictory theories?  What  other  subject  in  natural 
philosophy  has  been  less  satisfactorily  explained? 

Will  you,  therefore,  say  that  light  and  heat  are 
not  useful?  or  that  light  and  heat  do  not  exist  at  all? 


DOCTRINE   OF   INSPIRATION.  217 

because  natural  philosophers  have  not  yet  hit  upon 
a  theory  which  satisfactorily  accounts  for  all  the 
phenomena  which  these  substances  exhibit! 

On  the  subject  of  inspiration  generally,  and  the 
history  of  theories  respecting  it,  consult  Knapp's 
Theology,  translated  by  Leonard  Woods,  jr.  vol.  i. 
pp.  108-130. 


19 


CHAPTER    TWELFTH, 


'SCRIPTURAL    IDEA    AND    PROOF    OF    INSPIRATION. 


I.    SCRIPTURAL    IDEA    OF    INSPIRATION. 

In  this  chapter  our  investigations  are  confined  en- 
tirely to  the  bible  itself,  and  all  extraneous  topics  of 
argument  are  excluded.  The  questions  to  be  exam- 
ined are,  what  idea  does  the  bible  give  of  its  own 
inspiration?  and  what  proof  does  it  exhibit  of  possess- 
ing this  inspiration? 

The  scriptural  idea  of  inspiration  is  very  simple, 
and  not  embarrassed  by  any  of  the  refinements  of 
metaphysical  philosophy. 

Inspiration,  according  to  the  bible  is,  just  that  mea- 
sure of  extraordinary  divine  influence^  afforded  to  the 
sacred  speakers  and  writers^  which  was  necessary  to 
secure  the  purpose  intended^  and  no  more*  If  the  pur- 
pose were  to  excite  them  to  write  that  with  which 
they  were  already  well  acquainted,  just  this  degree  of 
influence  was  exerted.  If  there  were  the  additional 
purpose  of  bringing  fresh  to  their  recollection  things 
which  had  partly  faded  away,  so  much  additional 
influence  was  given.  If  explanations  and  more  full 
.developments  of  principles  were  needed,  the  Holy 


INSPIRATION    OF   THE   BIBLE.  219 

Spirit  gave  the  requisite  illustrations.  If  truths  be- 
fore unknown,  were  to  be  communicated,  the  Holy 
Spirit  revealed  them;  and  if  future  events  were  to 
be  foretold,  the  knowledge  of  them  was  imparted  by 
the  same  divine  agent.  So  far  also  as  the  mode  of 
communicating  was  necessary  to  the  accomplishment 
of  the  purpose  intended,  this  also  was  directed  by  the 
Holy  Spirit. 

These  extraordinary  influences  were  imparted  to 
the  sacred  teachers  to  aid  them  in  the  discharge  of 
their  official  duties  as  teachers  of  religion,  and  to 
secure  the  infallible  communication  of  religious  truth 
through  their  instrumentality;  while,  in  respect  to 
their  strictly  private  and  personal  character,  they 
stood  on  the  same  ground  and  were  liable  to  the 
same  errors,  as  other  good  men.  The  distinction 
here  is  of  great  importance;  and  by  those  who  will 
give  themselves  the  trouble  to  think,  it  can  easily  be 
made. 

Peter  was  inspired  to  preach  the  truth,  and  all  his 
religious  teachings  were  entirely  free  from  error; 
but  this  extraordinary  divine  influence  did  not  ex- 
tend to  his  personal  character,  or  regulate  his  con- 
duct as  an  individual:  otherwise  he  would  not  have 
brought  upon  himself  so  severe  a  rebuke  from  his 
divine  master  (Matthew  xvi.  23);  nor  have  denied 
his  Lord  in  the  hour  of  his  extremity;  nor  have  been 
guilty  of  dissimulation  through  fear  of  the  Jewish 
christians  at  Antioch  (Gal.  ii.  11-16).  Paul  and 
Barnabas  were  inspired  teachers  of  gospel  truth,  and 
the  doctrines  they  taught  were  free  from  all  mixture 
of  error;  but  their  inspiration  did  not  prevent  Bar- 


220  INSPIRATION    OF    THE   BIBLE. 

nabas  manifesting  an  undue  partiality  for  his  nephew 
Mark,  nor  Paul  being  so  much  offend'cd  by  it  as  to 
separate  himself  from  his  former  associate  in  the 
christian  ministry.  (Acts  xv.  37-40,  compare  Col. 
iv.  10). 

Such  is  the  scriptural  idea  of  inspiration.  It  is  not 
necessary  here  to  quote  the  passages  illustrative  oi 
these  statements,  as  they  must  all  be  exhibited  and 
discussed  under  the  subsequent  division. 

II.    SCRIPTURAL    PROOF    OF    INSPIRATION. 

For  the  sake  of  perspicuity  I  will  present  this 
branch  of  the  subject  under  several  distinct  heads. 

1.  Scriptural  proof  that  the  Founder  of  Christian- 
ity was  inspired^  and  possessed  divine  authority. 

The  proof  of  this  is  found  in  the  declarations 
which  Christ  made,  compared  w^ith  his  general  char- 
acter, his  predictions,  and  his  miraculous  works.  He 
publicly  declared  that  he  had  received  knowledge 
of  all  religious  truth  directly  from  God,  that  he  and 
he  alone  was  able  to  communicate  to  men  a  right 
knowledge  of  God  and  of  religious  truth;  and  he 
invites  all  to  come  to  him  as  the  only  competent 
religious  teacher,  and  promises  them  full  satisfaction 
if  they  comply. 

'All  things  are  delivered  unto  me  of  my  Father-; 
and  no  man  knoweth  the  Son,  but  the  Father;  neither 
knoweth  any  man  the  Father,  save  the  Son,  and  he 
to  whomsoever  the  Son  will  reveal  him-  Come  unto 
me,  all  ye  that  labor,  and  are  heavy  laden,  and  I  will 
give  you  rest.  Take  my  yoke  upon  you,  and  learn 
of  me:  for  I  am  meek  and  lo-wly  in.  heart:  and  ya^ 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  221 

shall  find  rest  unto  your  souls.    For  my  yoke  is  easy, 
and  my  burden  is  light'  (Matt.  xi.  27-30). 

'For  the  Father  loveth  the  Son,  and  showeth  him 
all  things  that  himself  doeth:  and  he  will  show  him 
greater  works  than  these,  that  ye  may  marvel.  For 
as  the  Father  raiseth  up  the  dead,  and  quickeneth 
them;  even  so  the  Son  quickeneth  whom  he  will. 
For  the  Father  judgeth  no  man;  but  hath  committed 
all  judgment  unto  the  Son:  That  all  men  should 
honor  the  Son,  even  as  they  honor  the  Father.  He 
that  honoreth  not  the  Son,  honoreth  not  the  Father, 
which  hath  sent  him.  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you^ 
He  that  heareth  my  word,  and  believeth  on  him 
that  sent  me,  hath  everlasting  life,  and  shall  not  come 
into  condemnation;  but  is  passed  from  death  uato 
life'  (John  v.  20-24). 

'  And  the  Father  himself,  which  hath  sent  me,  hathi 
borne  witness  of  me.  Ye  have  neither  heard  his 
voice  at  any  time,  nor  seen  his  shape.  And  ye  have 
not  his  word  abiding  in  you;  for  whom  he  hath  sent,. 
him  ye  believe  not.  Search  the  scriptures;  for  in 
them  ye  think  ye  have  eternal  life:  and  they  are  they 
which  testify  of  me.  And  ye  will  not  come  to  me, 
that  ye  might  have  life.  I  receive  not  honor  from 
men.  But  I  know  you,  that  ye  have  not  the  love  of 
God  in  you.  I  am  come  in  my  Father's  name,  and  ye 
receive  me  not:  if  another  shall  come  in  his  own 
name,  him  ye  will  receive'  (John  v.  37-43). 

'Jesus  said  unto  them.  If  God  were  your  Father, 

ye  would  love  me:  for  I  proceeded  forth,  and  came 

from  God;  neither  came  I  of  myself,  but  he  sent  me.. 

Why  dp  ye  not  understand  my  speech?  even  because 

19* 


22^  msPlRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

ye  cannot  hear  my  word.  Ye  are  of  your  father 
the  devil,  and  the  lusts  of  your  father  ye  will  do:  he- 
Was  a  murderer  from  the  beginning,  and  abode  not 
itl  the  truth,  because  there  is  no  truth  in  him.  When 
he  speaketh  a  lie,  he  speaketh  of  his  own:  for  he  is 
a  liar,  and  the  father  of  it.  And  because  I  tell  you 
the  truth,  ye  believe  me  not.  Which  of  you  con- 
vinceth  me  of  sin?  And  if  I  say  the  truth,  why  do 
ye  not  believe  me?  He  that  is  of  God,  heareth  God's 
words;  ye,  therefore,  hear  them  not,  because  ye  are 
not  of  God'  (John  viii.  42-47). 

'Pilate,  therefore,  said  unto  him,  Art  thou  a  king, 
thenT  Jesus  answered.  Thou  sayest  that  I  am  a  king. 
To  this  end  was  I  born,  and  for  this  cause  came  I 
into  the  world,  that  I  should  bear  witness  unto  the 
truth.  Every  one  that  is  of  the  truth,  heareth  my 
voice'  (John  xviii.  37).  Compare  also  Matt,  xxviii. 
18;  Luke  X.  22;  John  xv.  21-25;  xvi.  28;  xvii.  2; 
and  many  other  texts  of  the  same  import. 

In  these  and  numerous  other  passages  of  the  gos- 
pels, Jesus  declares  in  the  most  explicit  and  earnest 
manner,  that  he  is  a  teacher  sent  directly  from  God, 
that  he  speaks  the  words  of  God,  that  whosoever 
refuses  to  hear  him,  refuses  to  hear  God;  and  that  all 
who  are  of  God  and  have  any  sympathy  with  truth, 
recognize  at  once  in  him  the  image  of  God  and  the 
teacher  of  truth;  that  they  who  believed  in  him  should 
enjoy  eternal  life,  while  they  who  disbelieved  should 
suffer  eternal  death. 

If  Jesus  were  not  an  inspired  teacher  sent  from 
God,  in  making  these  repeated  and  solemn  declara- 
tions, he  must  either  have  been  deceived  himself,  or 


INSPIRATION    OF   tHK   BIBLE.  ^^S 

he  must  have  intended  to  deceive  others;  in  other 
words,  he  must  have  been  a  fanatic  or  an  impostor. 

Let  us  examine  the  character  of  Jesus  and  com- 
pare it  with  his  declarations,  and  judge  whether  he 
be  justly  liable  to  the  suspicion  either  of  fanaticism 
or  intentional  deception.  In  the  first  place,  what 
evidence  is  there  that  Jesus  was  under  the  influence 
of  fanaticism?  The  distinguishing  features  of  fanat- 
icism are  strongly  marked,  and  are  the  same  in  every 
age.  One  of  these  is  extravagance,  particularly  that 
species  of  it  usually  denominated  ultraism.  Some 
one  idea  is  seized  upon  to  the  exclusion  of  every  thing 
else,  taken  apart  from  all  its  connections,  and  driven 
to  the  extreme.  Another  feature  of  fanaticism  is 
unreasonableness;  a  pertinacious  refusal  to  examine, 
except  from  one  particular  point  of  view,  and  an 
obstinate  determination  to  admit  no  considerations 
tending  in  the  least  degree  to  modify  the  favorite 
opinion.  A  third  feature  is  uncharitableness,  which 
exhibits  itself  in  harsh  and  severe  denunciations 
against  useful  and  estimable  men,  who  will  not  fall 
in  with  the  fanatic  train,  and  more  unsparing  and 
angry  censure  of  them  than  of  the  notoriously  and 
obstinately  wicked.  The  reason  is,  that  such  men 
offer  a  much  stronger  barrier  to  the  progress  of  fanat- 
icism than  the  wicked  can  do. 

Another  characteristic  trait  of  fanaticism  is  found 
in  its  exhorbitant  expectations  and  its  corresponding 
demands  "upon  the  credulity  and  implicit  submission 
of  its  followers.  Finally,  imperfect  views  of  moral 
obligation  furnish  an  indubitable  mark  of  fanaticism. 


224  INSPIRATION   OF   THE   BIBLE. 

Fanatics  always  have  some  weak  points  of  moral 
character.  Frequently  they  have  been  lascivious. 
Almost  always  they  manifest  disregard  to  truth;  for, 
being  governed  by  the  imagination  rather  than  the 
judgment,  their  representations  are  all  tinged  by  the 
predominant  fancy,  whatever  it  may  be.  Particu- 
larly in  respect  to  every  thing  which  obstructs  their 
favorite  plans  or  tends  to  promote  them,  they  seem 
almost  incapable  of  speaking  or  even  perceiving  the 
simple  truth,  without  slander  on  the  one  hand  or  flat- 
tering exaggeration  on  the  other. 

Was  there  any  thing  of  all  this  in  the  character  of 
Jesus?  On  the  contrary,  w^hat  enlarged  conceptions, 
what  comprehensiveness  of  intellectual  vision,  what 
clear  and  rational  views  of  every  subject  on  which 
he  spoke !  There  is  a  character  of  wonderful  com- 
pleteness and  entireness  to  all  his  ideas,  which  is 
utterly  inconsistent  with  the  supposition  of  fanati- 
cism. 

Again,  how  tender,  and  charitable,  and  patient  was 
he  in  rebuking  the  feelings  of  sincerely  virtuous  men, 
like  his  own  disciples,  and  the  amiable  young  man 
who  vainly  imagined  that  he  had  kept  all  the  law 
from  his  youth;  and  severe  only  against  the  notori- 
ously and  boldly  wicked!  So  perfect  also  were  his 
views  of  moral  obligation,  that  nothing  which  is  in 
the  least  degree  vicious  ever  received  from  him,  un- 
der any  circumstances,  a  moment's  countenance  or 
indulgence. 

How  moderate  too  were  his  expectations!  So  far 
was  he  from  anticipating  personal  influence  and  high 
success,  that  from  an  early  period  of  his  ministry  he 


INSPIRATION    OF   THE   BIBLE.  225 

predicted  nothing  but  indignity,  cruelty  and  death  to 
himself,  and  gave  a  most  severe  reproof  to  Peter  for 
deprecating  such  a  result. 

'From  that  time  forth  began  Jesus  to  show  unto 
his  disciples,  how  that  he  must  go  unto  Jerusalem, 
and  sufier  many  things  of  the  elders  and  chief  priests, 
and  scribes,  and  be  killed,  and  be  raised  again  the 
third  day.  Then  Peter  took  him,  and  began  to  re- 
buke him,  saying,  Be  it  far  from  thee.  Lord:  this 
shall  not  be  unto  thee.  But  he  turned,  and  said  unto 
Peter,  Get  thee  behind  me,  Satan ;  thou  art  an  offence 
unto  me:  for  thou  savourest  not  the  things  that  be  of 
God,  but  those  that  be  of  men'  (Matt.  xvi.  21-23). 

He  even  assured  his  disciples  that  his  own  personal 
success  would  be  small,  and  theirs  would  be  great  in 
comparison  with  his. 

'Verily,  verily,  1  say  unto  you,  he  that  believeth 
on  me,  the  works  that  I  do,  shall  he  do  also,  and 
greater  works  than  these  shall  he  do;  because  I  go 
unto  my  Father'  (John  xiv.  1 2). 

And  when  the  indignities  and  sufferings  actually 
came  upon  him,  no  expressions  of  impatience  or  dis- 
appointment escaped  his  lips,  but  silently  and  quietly 
he  submitted  to  them  all  as  events  which  he  had  long 
anticipated  and  never  expected  to  avoid.  'He  was 
oppressed  and  he  was  afflicted,  yet  he  opened  not  his 
mouth;  he  is  brought  as  a  lamb  to  the  slaughter,  and 
as  a  sheep  before  her  shearers  is  dumb,  so  he  openeth 
not  his  mouth'  (Isaiah  liii.  7). 

Compare  the  character  of  Christ  with  that  of  fana- 
tics, all  the  world  over,  and  they  are  perfect  contrasts. 


226  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

Who  that  has  any  knowledge  of  fanaticism,  will  pre- 
tend to  say  that  Jesus  was  a  fanatic? 

Was  Jesus,  then,  on  the  other  hand,  an  impostor? 
For  what  purpose  was  he  an  impostor?  and  what 
shadow  of  evidence  does  his  life  afford  that  such  was 
his  character? 

He  refused  every  offer  of  personal  benefit,  and 
studiously  suppressed  every  rising  of  popularity 
(John  vi.  15);  anticipated  from  the  beginning  all  the 
indignities  and  cruelties  that  awaited  him  (Matt.  xx. 
17-19;  Mark  x.  32-34),  and  at  last  quietly  submit- 
ted  himself  to  them  without  the  least  expression  of 
disappointment  or  regret.  The  entire  benevolence 
and  devotedness  of  his  whole  course  of  life;  his  an- 
xiety to  avoid  parade  and  popular  applause;  his  un- 
exampled simplicity  of  character;  do  these  show  him 
to  be  an  impostor?  He  who  can  believe  this,  shows 
more  credulity  than  he  who  can  believe  the  legends 
of  the  Talmud  and  the  Koran. 

If,  then,  Jesus  were  neither  a  fanatic  nor  an  impos- 
tor, he  was  divinely  inspired;  for  we  have  seen  be- 
fore that  he  laid  claim  to  such  inspiration  une- 
quivocally, publicly,  and  without  any  reserve. 

The  predictions  of  Christ,  also,  prove  his  divine 
inspiration.  To  these  he  himself  appeals  as  evidence 
on  this  point.  To  his  disciples  he  said,  after  predict- 
ing  his  own  death, 

'And  now  I  have  told  you  before  it  come  to  pass, 
that,  when  it  is  come  to  pass,  ye  might  believe' 
(John  xir.  29). 

And  again : 

'  But  these  things  have  I  told  you,  that^  when  the 


INSPIRATION    OP   THE   BIBLE.  227 

time  shall  come,  ye  may  remember  that  I  told  you  of 
them'  (John  xvi.  4), 

While  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem  to  attend  his  last 
festival  there,  he  gave  his  disciples  a  circumstantial 
account  of  the  death  that  awaited  him,  and  the  tri- 
umphal resurrection  which  should  succeed. 

'  Then  he  took  unto  him  the  twelve,  and  said  unto 
them.  Behold,  we  go  up  to  Jerusalem,  and  all  things 
that  are  written  by  the  prophets  concerning  the  Son 
of  man  shall  be  accomplished.  For  he  shall  be  de- 
livered unto  the  Gentiles,  and  shall  be  mocked,  and 
spitefully  entreated,  and  spitted  on:  And  they 
shall  scourge  him,  and  put  him  to  death:  and  the 
third  day  he  shall  rise  again'  (Luke  xviii.  31-33. 
Compare  Matt.  xx.  17-19,  and  Mark  x.  32-34).  His 
enemies  remembered  these  predictions,  and  took  pre- 
cautions against  their  fulfilment.  These  precautions 
happily  precluded  the  possibility  of  deception,  and 
thus  resulted  in  the  complete  establishment  of  the 
divine  authority  of  Christ  and  the  confusion  of  his 
enemies. 

'Now  the  next  day  that  followed  the  day  of  the  pre- 
paration, the  chief  priests  and  Pharisees  came  together 
unto  Pilate,  saying,  sir,  we  remember  that  that  de- 
ceiver said,  while  he  was  yet  alive,  after  three  days 
I  will  rise  again.  Command  therefore  that  the  sepul- 
chre be  made  sure  until  the  third  day,  lest  his  disci- 
ples come  by  night,  and  steal  him  away,  and  say  unto 
the  people,  he  is  risen  from  the  dead:  so  the  last  error 
shall  be  worst  than  the  first.  Pilate  said  unto  them, 
Ye  have  a  watch:  go  your  way,  make  it  as  sure  as 
ye  can.    So  they  went  and  made  the  sepulchre  sure, 


228  INSPIRATION    OF   THE    BIBLE. 

sealing  the  stone,  and  setting  a  watch.  (Matt,  xxvii. 
62-66). 

Thus  the  wise  were  taken  in  their  own  craftiness; 
and  when  the  event  turned  their  own  machinations 
against  themselves,  they  found  no  way  to  avoid  the 
consequences  but  by  bribery  and  complicated  false- 
hood. 

'Now  when  they  were  going,  behold,  some  of  the 
watch  came  into  the  city,  and  showed  unto  the  chief 
priests  all  the  things  that  were  done.  And  when  they 
were  assembled  with  the  elders,  and  had  taken  coun- 
sel, they  gave  large  money  unto  the  soldiers:  saying, 
say  ye,  his  disciples  came  by  night,  and  stole  him 
away  while  we  slept.  And  if  this  come  to  the  gov- 
ernor's ears,  we  will  persuade  him,  and  secure  you. 
So  they  took  the  money,  and  did  as  they  were  taught: 
and  this  saying  is  commonly  reported  among  the 
Jews  until  this  day'  (Matt,  xxviii.  11-15,  compare 
vs.  2-4). 

His  early  and  frequent  predictions  respecting  the 
treachery  of  Judas,  when  his  conduct  was  such  that 
the  other  disciples,  though  his  intimate  associates, 
had  no  suspicion  of  him  more  than  of  any  other  one 
of  the  twelve,  are  unquestionable  proofs  of  divine 
foreknowledge. 

'Jesus  answered  them.  Have  not  I  chosen  you 
twelve,  and  one  of  you  is  a  devil?  He  spake  of  Ju- 
das Iscariot,  the  son  of  Simon;  for  he  it  was  that 
should  betray  him,  being  one  of  the  twelve'  (John 
vi.  70-71). 

The  effect  of  the  announcement  to  the  disciples 
at  the  last  supper,  of  the  fact  that  one  of  them  would 
prove  a  traitor,  and  the  painful  suspicion  which  each 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  ^29 

one  appears  to  have  had  of  himself  rather  than  of 
Judas,  is  particularly  worthy  of  notice. 

'  Now  when  the  even  was  come,  he  sat  down  with 
the  twelve.  And  as  they  did  eat,  he  said.  Verily  I 
say  unto  you,  that  one  of  you  shall  betray  me.  And 
they  were  exceeding  sorrowful,  and  began  every  one 
of  them  to  say  unto  him.  Lord,  is  it  I?  And  he  an- 
swered and  said,  he  that  dippeth  his  hand  with  me 
in  the  dish,  the  same  shall  betray  me.  The  Son  of 
man  indeed  goeth,  as  it  is  written  of  him:  but  wo 
to  that  man  by  whom  the  Son  of  man  is  betrayed! 
good  were  it  for  that  man,  if  he  had  never  been  born. 
Then  Judas,  which  betrayed  him,  answered  and  said, 
Master,  is  it  I?  He  said  unto  him,  thou  hast  said' 
(Matt.  xxvi.  20-25,  compare  Mark  xiv.  17-21;  Luke 
xxii.  21-23;  John  xiii.  21-30). 

The  full  and  circumstantial  prophecies  respecting 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  succeeding 
events,  when  compared  with  the  history  of  the  Jew- 
ish war  by  Josephus,  afford  the  most  satisfactory  evi- 
dence of  divine  foreknowledge.'  (Matt,  xxiv;  Mark 
xiii;  Luke  xxi.) 

The  miracles  of  Christ  are  an  unanswerable  proof 
of  his  divine  authority,  and  he  himself  frequently 
appeals  to  them  as  such. 

'Now,  when  John  had  heard  in  the  prison  the 
works  of  Christ,  he  sent  two  of  his  disciples,  an  i 
said  unto  him.  Art  thou  he  that  should  come,  or  do 
we  look  for  another?  Jesus  answered  and  said  unto 
them.  Go,  and  show  John  again  those  things  which 
ye  do  hear  and  see:  the  blind  receive  their  sight,  and 
the  lame  walk;  the  lepers  are  cleansed, and  the  deaf 
20 


230  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

hear;  the  dead  are  raised  up,  and  the  poor  have  the 
aospel  preached  to  them;  and  blessed  is  he,  whoso- 
ever shall  not  be  offended  in  me'  (Matt  xi.  2-6,  com- 
pare Luke  vii.  18-23). 

He  makes  similar  appeals  to  strengthen  the  faith 
of  his  desponding  disciples. 

'Believest  thou  not,  that  I  am  in  the  Father,  and 
the  Father  in  me?  The  words  that  I  speak  unto  you, 
I  speak  not  of  myself:  but  the  Father,  that  dwelleth 
in  me,  he  doeth  the  works.  Believe  me  that  I  am  in 
the  Father,  and  the  Father  in  me:  or  else  believe  me 
for  the  very  works'  sake'  (John  xiv.  10,  11). 

In  the  same  manner  he  shows  the  entire  inexcusa- 
bleness  of  those  who  persisted  in  their  unbelief. 

'If  I  had  not  done  among  them  the  works  which 
none  other  man  did,  they  had  not  had  sin:  but  now 
have  they  both  seen  and  hated  both  me  and  my 
Father'  (John  xv.  24). 

•But  I  have  greater  witness  than  that  of  John;  for 
the  works  which  the  Father  hath  given  me  to  finish, 
the  same  works  that  I  do,  bear  witness  of  me,  that 
the  Father  hath  sent  me'  (John  v.  36). 

The  miracles  here  referred  to,  and  which  are  re- 
corded in  the  gospels,  show  the  most  entire  and  be- 
nevolent control  of  nature,  such  as  the  Creator  only 
or  one  authorized  by  him,  can  exert;  and  they  are  of 
such  a  kind,  so  publicly  perfoimed  and  in  such  a 
variety  of  circumstances,  that  the  possibility  of  de- 
ception or  mistake  is  entirely  excluded.  The  whole 
subject  of  miracles  will  be  particularly  considered 
in  the  next  chapter;  and  Dr.  Paley  has  discussed  the 
credibility  of  the  christian  miracles  with  his  usual 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  231 

judgment,  acuteness  and  candor,  in  his  Evidences 
(Preparatory  Considerations;  Proposition  i.  chap.  6- 
8,  and  Proposition  ii.),  to  which  I  refer  the  reader. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  evidence  which  we  have 
of  the  divine  authority  of  the  Founder  of  the  chris- 
tian religion;  and  this  being  established,  it  is  easy  to 
prove  the  divine  inspiration  of  the  several  writers  of 
the  bible. 

2.  Scriptural  proof  that  the  apostles  and  other  lori- 
ters  of  the  New  Testament  were  divinely  inspired. 

The  proof  of  this  rests  primarily  on  the  declara- 
tions of  Christ,  that  they  should  have  the  infallible 
guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  regard  to  all  the  reli- 
gious truths  which  they  were  to  communicate. 

'But  the  Comforter,  which  is  the  Holy  Ghost,  whom 
the  Father  will  send  in  my  name,  he  shall  teach  you 
all  things,  and  bring  all  things  to  your  remembrance, 
whatsoever  I  have  said  unto  you'  (John  xiv.  25). 

'Nevertheless,  I  tell  you  the  truth;  it  is  expedient 
for  you  that  I  go  away:  for  if  I  go  not  away,  the 
Comforter  will  not  come  unto  you;  but  if  I  depart,  I 
will  send  him  unto  you.  Howbeit,  w'hen  he,  the 
Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you  into  all 
truth:  for  he  shall  not  speak  of  himself;  but  whatso- 
ever he  shall  hear,  that  shall  he  speak ;  and  he  will 
show  you  things  to  come'  (John  xvi.  7,  13). 

The  promise  is  absolute  and  unconditional  in  refer- 
ence to  all  their  official  duties  as  religious  teachers; 
and  it  extends  not  only  to  the  matter  of  the  truth  to 
be  communicated,  but  also,  when  necessary,  to  the 
very  mode  of  conveying  it;  for  they  were  to  be 
divinely  taught  both  what  and  how  they  should  speak. 


232  INSPIRATION    OF   THE    BIBLE. 

'But  when  they  deliver  you  up,  take  no  thought 
how  or  what  ye  shall  speak ;  for  it  shall  be  given  you 
in  that  same  hour  what  ye  shall  speak.  For  it  is  not 
ye  that  speak,  but  the  Spirit  of  your  Father  which 
speaketh  in  you'  (Matt.  x.  19,  20). 

'And  when  they  bring  you  unto  the  synagogues, 
and  unto  magistrates  and  powers,  take  ye  no  thought, 
how,  or  what  thing  ye  shall  answer,  or  what  ye  shall 
say:  for  the  Holy  Ghost  shall  teach  you  in  the  same 
hour,  what  ye  ought  to  say'  (Luke  xii.  11-12,  com- 
pare also  xxi.  14,  15;  and  Mark  xiii.  11). 

It  cannot  be  objected  to  the  inspiration  of  the 
general  preaching  of  the  apostles,  that  these  promises 
are  confined  to  the  defence  which  they  were  to  make 
when  called  before  magistrates  to  answer  for  their 
religious  instructions;  for  if  we  look  into  Acts  we 
shall  find  that  in  every  instance  where  they  were  call- 
ed upon  to  defend  themselves  before  the  civil  or  ec- 
clesiastical authorities,  they  did  but  repeat  the  in- 
structions which  they  had  given  to  the  people,  and 
preached  to  the  magistrates  the  doctrines  of  the  gos- 
pel. On  the  ground  of  the  objection,  therefore,  the 
instructions  they  gave  the  people  have  the  sanction 
of  infallible  divine  authority'  (Compare  Acts  iv.  1-13; 
xxiv.  10-21 ;  xvii.  xxii.  xxvi). 

The  apostles  declared  themselves  to  be  inspired, 
and  attributed  their  instructions  to  the  direct  influ- 
ence of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

'For  it  seemed  good  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  to  us, 
to  lay  upon  you  no  greater  burden  than  these  neces- 
sary things'  (Acts  xv.  28). 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  233 

Paul  uniformly  attributes  his  religious  knowledge 
and  his  authority  to  teach  to  the  same  divine  agent. 

'But  as  it  is  written,  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear 
heard,  neither  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man, 
the  things  which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that 
love  him.  But  God  hath  revealed  them  unto  us  by 
his  Spirit:  for  the  Spirit  searchethall  things,  yea,  the 
deep  things  of  God.  For  what  man  knoweth  the 
things  of  a  man,  save  the  spirit  of  man  which  is  in 
him  ?  even  so,  the  things  of  God  knoweth  no  man, 
but  the  Spirit  of  God.  Now  w^e  have  received,  not 
the  spirit  of  the  world,  but  the  Spirit  which  is  of 
God;  that  we  might  know  the  things  that  are  freely 
given  to  us  of  God.  Which  things  also  we  speak, 
not  in  the  words  which  man's  wisdom  teacheth,  but 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  teacheth;  comparing  spiritual 
things  with  spiritual'  (1  Cor.  ii.  10-13). 

'If  ye  have  heard  of  the  dispensation  of  the  grace 
of  God,  which  is  given  me  to  you-ward.  How  that 
by  revelation  he  made  known  unto  me  the  mystery' 
(Eph.  iii.  2,  3). 

He  even  asserts  that  he  received  the  whole  of  his 
knowledge  from  this  source,  and  had  no  aid  wiiatever 
from  those  who  had  been  apostles  before  him. 

'But  I  certify  you,  brethren,  that  the  gospel  which 
was  preached  of  me,  is  not  after  man:  for  I  n-either 
received  it  of  man,  neither  w^as  I  taught  it,  but  by 
the  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ.  But  w^hen  it  pleased 
God,  who  separated  me  from  my  mother's  womb,  and 
called  me  by  his  grace,  to  reveal  his  Son  in  me,  that 
I  might  preach  him  among  the  heathen ;  immediately 
I  conferred  not  with  flesh  and  blood:  neither  went  1 
20* 


234  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

up  to  Jerusalem  to  them  which  were  apostles  before 
me;-  but  I  went  into  Arabia,  and  returned  again  unto 
Damascus'  (Gal.  i.  11,  12,  15-17). 

Speaking  also  of  his  second  journey  to  Jerusalem, 
and  his  seeing  the  other  apostles  there,  he  says: 

'But  of  those,  who  seemed  to  be  somewhat:  (what- 
soever they  were,  it  maketh  no  matter  to  me:  God 
accepteth  no  man's  person:)  for  they  who  seemed  to 
be  somewhat,  in  conference  added  nothing  to  me' 
(Gal.  ii.  6). 

The  apostle  Peter  gives  his  sanction  to  the  epistles 
of  Paul,  and  attributes  to  them  the  same  authority 
which  the  other  scriptures  possess. 

'And  account  that  the  long-suffering  of  our  Lord  is 
salvation ;  even  as  our  beloved  brother  Paul  also,  ac- 
cording to  the  wisdom  given  unto  him,  hath  written 
unto  you;  as  also  in  all  his  epistles,  speaking  in  them 
of  these  things;  in  which  are  some  things  hard  to  be 
understood,  which  they  that  are  unlearned  and  un- 
stable, wrest,  as  they  do  also  the  other  scriptures, 
unto  their  own  destruction'  (2  Pet.  iii.  15,  16). 

The  apostles  wrought  miracles  in  attestation  of 
their  claims  as  divinely  inspired  teachers.  These 
miracles  were  of  the  same  kind  as  those  which  the 
Saviour  himself  had  wrought,  and  they  had  received 
from  him  a  special  commission  for  their  performance, 
for  the  very  purpose  of  testing  the  truth  and  authori- 
ty of  their  instructions.  In  his  last  interview  with 
the  disciples,  'he  said  unto  them.  Go  ye  into  all  the 
world,  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature.  He 
that  believeth  and  is  baptized,  shall  be  saved;  but  he 
that  believeth  not,  shall  be  damned.     And  these 


INSPIRATION    OF   THE   BIBLE.  335 

signs  shall  follow  them  that  believe ;  in  my  name  shall 
they  cast  out  devils;  they  shall  speak  with  new 
tongues;  they  shall  take  up  serpents;  and  if  they 
drink  any  deadly  thing,  it  shall  not  hurt  them;  they 
shall  lay  hands  on  the  sick,  and  they  shall  recover' 
(Mark  xvi.  15-18). 

Throughout  the  book  of  Acts  we  observe  the  ful- 
filment of  this  promise. 

'And  by  the  hands  of  the  apostles  were  many  signs 
and  wonders  wrought  among  the  people:  insomuch, 
that  they  brought  forth  the  sick  into  the  streets,  and 
laid  them  on  beds  and  couches,  that,  at  the  least, 
the  shadow  of  Peter  passing  by,  might  overshadow 
some  of  them.  There  came  also  a  multitude  out  of 
the  cities  round  about,  unto  Jerusalem,  bringing  sick 
folks,  and  them  which  were  vexed  with  unclean 
spirits:  and  they  were  healed  every  one'  (Acts  v. 
12,  15,  16). 

'Then  Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of  Samaria, 
and  preached  Christ  unto  them.  And  the  people  with 
one  accord  gave  heed  unto  those  things  which  Philip 
spake,  hearing  and  seeing  the  miracles  which  he  did. 
For  unclean  spirits,  crying  with  a  loud  voice,  came 
out  of  many  that  were  possessed  with  them;  and 
many  taken  with  palsies,  and  that  were  lame,  were 
healed.  And  there  was  great  joy  in  that  city'  (Acts 
viii.  5-8). 

'And  God  wrought  special  miracles  by  the  hands 
of  Paul:  so  that  from  his  body  were  brought  unto 
the  sick,  handkerchiefs  or  aprpns,  and  the  diseases 
departed  from  them,  and  the  evil  spirits  went  out  of 


236  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

them'  (Acts  xix.  11-12,  compare  also  xiii.  8-12;  xiv, 
8-10;  xvi.  18;  xix.  12;  xxviii.  8,  9). 

It  is  manifest  also,  that  other  preachers  who  were 
not  apostles,  possessed  similar  miraculous  powers. 
(1  Cor.  xii.  1-11,  and  many  other  passages). 

The  writings  of  the  apostles  possess  the  same  au- 
thority as  their  oral  instructions.  Many  of  the  pas- 
sages quoted  above,  which  assert  inspiration  in  the 
most  direct  and  explicit  manner,  refer  expressly  to 
written  and  not  to  oral  teaching.  Such  are  Acts  xv* 
28;  Eph.  iii.  3;  2  Pet.  iii.  15.  16.  Paul  writes  to 
one  of  the  churches: 

'Therefore,  brethren,  stand  fast,  and  hold  the  tra- 
ditions which  ye  have  been  taught,  whether  by  word 
or  our  epistle'  (2  Thess.  ii.  15). 

The  comprehensive  powers  conferred  by  Christ  on 
Peter,  and  on  the  whole  company  of  the  apostles, 
plainly  include  authoritative  teaching  by  written 
communications. 

'And  I  will  give  unto  thee  the  keys  of  the  king- 
dom of  heaven:  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  on 
earth,  shall  be  bound  in  heaven;  and  whatsoever  thou 
shalt  loose  on  earth,  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven'  (Matt, 
xvi.  19). 

'  Verily  I  say  unto  you.  Whatsoever  ye  shall  bind 
on  earth,  shall  be  bound  in  heaven;  and  whatsoever 
ye  shall  loose  on  earth,  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven' 
(Matt,  xviii.  18). 

It  is  obvious,  also,  from  the  very  nature  of  the 
case,  that  the  writings  of  the  apostles  possess  the 
same  authority  as  their  oral  instructions.  If  they 
could  speak  truth  infallibly,  they  could  also  write  it 


INSPIRATION    OF   THE   BIBLE.  237 

infallibly.  The  promises  are  not  restricted  to  one 
mode  of  communication;  but  apply  to  instructions 
communicated  in  any  mode.  If  it  were  necessary 
that  evanescent  oral  teaching  should  be  inspired, 
much  more  is  it  necessary  that  written  instructions 
should  be  so,  which  are  permanent  in  their  influence 
and  designed  for  the  religious  education  of  all  future- 
generations. 

So  far  as  the  testimony  of  the  bible  goes,  the  divine 
authority  of  the  apostolic  teachings,  whether  oral  or 
written,  stands  on  precisely  the  same  ground  with 
that  of  the  instructions  of  Christ  himself*  He  gives 
to  them  all  the  authority  of  his  own  unequivocal 
sanction,  in  the  passages  already  quoted;  and  even 
declares  that  their  knowledge  should  be  increased 
after  his  ascension,  and  that  their  teachings  should  on 
some  points  be  more  full  and  plain  than  his  own. 

'  I  have  yet  many  things  to  say  unto  you,  but  ye 
cannot  bear  them  now.  Howbeit  when  he,  the- 
Spirit  of  truth  is  come,  he  shall  guide  you  into  all 
truth:  he  shall  glorify  me,  for  he  shall  receive  of 
mine  and  shall  show  it  unto  you'  (John  xvi.  12-14). 

They  declared  themselves  to  be  in  full  possession 
of  this  authority,  and  sustained  their  claims  by  the 
same  sort  of  miracles  which  Christ  had  wrought  to 
sustain  his;  and  the  bible  nowhere  recognizes  any 
difference  in  this  respect. 

It  may  be  said  that  Mark  and  Luke  were  not  apos- 
tles, and  that  their  writings,  therefore,  cannot  have 
the  same  authority  as  the  other  parts  of  the  New 
Testament. 


238  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  companions  of  the 
apostles,  under  apostolic  superintendence,  had  the 
power  of  working  miracles  and  of  authoritative 
teaching.  Besides,  we  have  historical  testimony  that 
the  writings  of  Mark  and  Luke  received  the  sanction 
of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  were  thus  invested  with  apos- 
tolic authority. 

'Mark  was  the  disciple  and  interpreter  of  Peter, 
and  having  written  down  the  things  which  Peter 
preached,  he  delivered  them  to  us'  (Irenaeus,  adv. 
Haer.  iii.  1). 

'The  methodized  narrative  of  Luke  is  usually  as- 
cribed to  Paul.' — 'What  the  disciples  promulgated, 
may  be  considered  the  work  of  their  masters'  (Ter- 
tullian,  adv.  Marc.  iv.  5;  compare  also  pages  126- 
128  of  this  volume). 

If  any  one  doubts  the  apostleship  of  Paul  and  his 
authority  to  give  such  a  sanction,  on  the  ground  that 
he  was  not  one  of  the  personal  attendants  of  our 
Lord,  let  his  own  language  repel  the  objection. 

'Am  I  not  an  apostle?  am  I  not  free?  have  I  not 
seen  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord?  are  not  ye  my  work  in 
the  Lord?  If  I  be  not  an  apostle  unto  others,  yet 
doubtless  I  am  to  you :  for  the  seal  of  mine  apostle- 
ship are  ye  in  the  Lord'  (1  Cor.  ix.  1,  2). 

'For  I  suppose  I  was  not  a  whit  behind  the  very 
chiefest  apostles.  Truly  the  signs  of  an  apostle  were 
wrought  among  you  in  all  patience,  in  signs  and  won- 
ders and  mighty  deeds'  (2  Cor.  xi.  5;  xii.  12). 

The  personal  character  of  the  apostles,  their  pru- 
dence, their  moral  integrity,  their  disinterestedness, 
their  enlightened,  benevolent  and  consistent  course 


INSPIRATION    OF   THE   BIBLE.  $39 

of  life,  frees  them,  as  it  does  their  divine  master,frorn 
all  just  suspicion  of  fanaticism  or  imposture;  and 
connected  with  the  other  proof  already  adduced, 
fully  establishes  their  claim  to  divine  authority. 

It  has  sometimes  been  objected,  that  Paul,  in  refer- 
ence to  a  few  topics  in  one  chapter,  expressly  dis- 
claims authoritative  inspiration.  (1  Cor  vii.  6, 12,  25, 
40,  compare  verse  10).  This  is  a  decisive  proof  that 
he  assumed  divine  authority  in  all  cases  in  which  he 
did  not  expressly  disclaim  it;  for  it  is  evident  from  all 
his  epistles  that  he  was  always  so  understood;  and 
otherwise,  it  would  not  have  been  necessary  for  him 
so  carefully  to  disclaim  it  in  these  particular  instances. 
If  a  civil  officer  should  advise  a  community,  as  a 
friend,  to  a  particular  course  respecting  which  the 
law  had  made  no  express  provision,  and  in  doing  it, 
should  disclaim  all  idea  of  official  interference,  would 
that  disclaimer  divest  him  of  legal  authority  in  cases 
which  came  under  the  express  provisions  of  the  law? 
The  case  supposed  is  precisely  analogous  to  that  of 
Paul;  and  that  he  intends  his  disclaimer  to  be  strictly 
limited  to  the  particular  things  specified,  is  manifest 
from  his  emphatic  resumption  of  apostolic  authority 
in  the  same  chapter,  in  a  case  in  which  he  had  re* 
ceived  an  express  injunction  from  the  Lord. 

'And  unto  the  married  I  command,  yet  not  I  but 
the  Lord,  Let  not  the  wife  depart  from  her  husband' 
(1  Cor.  vii.  10). 

It  is  sometimes  objected  that  Paul  in  one  case,  in- 
troduces himself  speaking  as  a  fool  (2  Cor.  xi.  21, 
23;  xii.  11).  Can  he  be  supposed  to  have  authorita- 
tive inspiration  in  such  cases? 


I 


S40  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

A  bare  inspection  of  the  passages  shows,  that  the 
course  of  reasoning  there  is  similar  to  that  pursued 
in  Romans  iii.  where  objeetions  are  introduced  and 
answers  given;  and  if  an  objection  could  be  stated 
under  the  influence  of  inspiration,  so  also  under  the 
same  influence  could  the  vain-glorious  boasting  of 
false  apostles  be  held  up  to  deserved  contempt  by 
contrast  with  the  labors  and  sufferings,  the  merits 
and  the  humility  of  a  Paul.  If  Paul  became  a  fool 
by  glorying^  how  much  greater  fools  were  they  who 
gloried  more  without  a  tithe  of  his  reasons  for  so 
doing! 

It  is  sometimes  objected,  that  some  of  the  direc- 
tions in  the  epistles  are  minute,  trifling,  and  could  be 
given  as  well  without  inspiration  as  with  it.  For 
example,  the  direction  which  Paul  gives  Timothy 
respecting  his  cloak,  books,  and  parchment'  (2  Tim. 
iv.  13). 

No  intelligent  defender  of  the  inspiration  of  the 
bible  will  admit  that  inspiration  is  given  where  it  is 
not  needed  (compare  pages  13-15  of  this  volume); 
and  the  objection  assumes  what  is  by  no  means  the 
fact,  that  the  articles,  to  which  Paul  alludes,  were  of 
small  importance  to  him  during  the  approaching 
winter  (2  Tim.  iv.  21). 

His  miraculous  powers  would  not  shield  him  from 
the  cold  of  winter,  nor  furnish  him  with  clothing  for 
his  comfort,  nor  books  for  his  entertainment  and  in- 
struction, nor  parchment  for  the  convenience  of  his 
extensive  correspondence;  and  we  have  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  he  had  an  abundance  of  money  to 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  241 

provide  himself  with  such  articles  in  every  new  place 
to  which  he  might  come. 

It  is  sometimes  objected  that  one  at  least  of  the 
inspired  books  of  the  New  Testament  has  been  lost. 
(Col.  iv.  16).  Admitting  that  the  apostle  Paul  wrote 
an  inspired  epistle  to  the  Laodiceans,  there  is  no 
proof  that  it  was  designed  to  answer  any  other  than 
a  local  and  temporary  purpose,  or  that  there  was  any 
necessity  of  its  being  preserved  for  the  use  of  pos- 
terity. Had  there  been  any  such  necessity,  it  is 
probable  that  the  same  divine  care  which  preserved 
the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament  would  also 
have  preserved  this.  Very  many  of  the  inspired  oral 
discourses  of  our  Lord  and  the  apostles  w^ere  never 
written  down,  and  can  never  be  recovered  (John  xx. 
30  5  xxi.  25);  but  what  has  been  lost  neither  weakens 
the  evidence  nor  diminishes  the  value  of  what  has 
been  preserved.  All  has  been  preserved  which  God 
ever  intended  to  be  preserved,  or  which  is  necessary 
to  accomplish  the  purposes  for  which  the  bible  is 
given:  as  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  the  New  Tes- 
tament, as  we  now  have  it,  fully  developes  a  system 
of  faith  and  practice,  which  is  in  all  its  parts  complete, 
symmetrical  and  well  proportioned. 

3.  Scriptural  proof  of  the  divine  inspiration  of  the 
Old   Testament, 

We  might  proceed  here  in  the  same  manner  as  wc 
have  with  the  New  Testament,  and  introduce  the 
express  declarations  of  the  inspired  writers  under  the 
old  dispensation  (compare  Exod.  iv.  12,  15,  16;  Deut. 
xviii.  18;  Isa.  vi.  6-8;  Jer.  i.  6-10;  Ezek  vi.  1;  vii. 
1 ;  Amos  iii.  7,  and  many  other  passages),  confirmed 
21 


242  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

as  these  declarations  were  by  the  character  of  the 
writers,  their  predictions  and  miracles.  But  as  we 
have  already  established  the  divine  authority  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  more  direct  and  satisfactory 
mode  of  proof  will  be  to  confirm  the  inspiration  of 
the  Old  Testament  by  the  authority  of  the  New. 

Christ  himself  gave  to  the  Old  Testament  his  full 
sanction  as  the  word  of  God,  and,  in  all  respects,  of 
divine  authority.  The  prominent  events  of  his  own 
history,  he  asserts,  were  divinely  foretold  in  the  Old 
Testament. 

'The  Son  of  man  goeth,  as  it  is  written  of  him: 
but  wo  unto  that  man  by  whom  the  Son  of  man  is 
betrayed!  it  had  been  good  for  that  man  if  he  had  not 
been  born.  Then  saith  Jesus  unto  them,  All  ye  shall  be 
ofiended  because  of  me  this  night:  for  it  is  written, 
I  will  smite  the  shepherd,  and  the  sheep  of  the  flock 
shall  be  scattered  abroad'   (Matt.  xxvi.  24,  31). 

*  For  I  say  unto  you,  That  this  that  is  written  must 
yet  be  accomplished  in  me.  And  he  was  reckoned 
among  the  transgressors:  for  the  things  concerning 
me  have  an  end'  (Luke  xxii.  37). 

He  explained  to  his  disciples  the  predictions  of  the 
Old  Testament  concerning  himself,  and  severely  re- 
buked them  for  not  more  readily  apprehending  and 
believing  these  predictions. 

'  Then  he  said  unto  them,  O  fools,  and  slow  of  heart 
to  believe  all  that  the  prophets  have  spoken!  Ought 
not  Christ  to  have  suffered  these  things,  and  to  enter 
into  his  glory?  And  beginning  at  Moses,  and  all  the 
prophets,  he  expounded  unto  them,  in  all  the  scrip- 
tures, the  things  concerning  himself. 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  243 

And  he  said  unto  them,  These  are  the  words  which  I 
spake  unto  you,  while  I  was  yet  with  you,  that  all  things 
must  be  fulfilled  which  were  written  in  the  law  of 
Moses,  and  in  the  prophets,  and  in  the  psalms,  concern- 
ing me.  Then  opened  he  their  understanding,  that 
they  might  understand  the  scriptures,  and  said  unto 
them,  Thus  it  is  written,  and  thus  it  behoved  Christ  to 
suffer'  (Luke  xxiv.  25-27,  44-46). 

Compare  also  Matthew  iv,  4,  7,  10;  v.  17,  18,  and 
many  other  passages. 

The  apostles  also  gave  the  same  sanction  to  the 
Old  Testament  as  possessing  divine  authority.  All 
their  writings  and  discourses,  which  have  been  pre- 
served, contain  numerous  quotations  from  the  ancient 
scriptures  as  the  authoritative  word  of  God,  and  there 
is  nowhere  the  least  intimation  that  the  inspiration 
of  the  ancient  writers  was  at  all  inferior  to  their 
own;  on  the  contrary,  they  always  appeal  to  them 
as  the  highest  authority  for  the  confirmation  of  their 
own  statements.  Compare  the  discourses  of  the  apos- 
tles recorded  in  Acts,  also  1  Cor.  ix.  8-10;  x.  1-11; 
2  Pet.  iii.  15,  16. 

The  epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  Hebrews  were 
written  to  those  who  set  too  high  a  value  upon  the 
old  dispensation  and  underrated  the  new;  and  it  is 
the  object  of  these  epistles  to  convince  them  of  this 
error,  and  to  bring  them  to  a  proper  appreciation  of 
the  relative  excellence  of  the  two  covenants.  If 
then  the  Old  Testament  were  in  any  respect  of  in- 
ferior authority  to  the  New,  the  most  direct  mode  of 
accomplishing  the  apostle's  purpose  would  have  been 
the  declaration  and  proof  of  this  fact;  but  instead  of 


244  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

doing  this,  he  everywhere  assumes  and  asserts  the 
entire  divinity  and  plenary  inspiration  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  sustains  the  divinity  of  the  New  by 
the  divine  authority  of  the  Old.  He  certainly  could 
not  hope  to  destroy  an  injurious  prejudice  by  accom- 
modating himself  to  it,  and  cherishing  and  encourag- 
ing it;  and  as  an  honest  teacher  of  religion  he  could 
not  have  given  the  sanction  of  his  own  inspiration  to 
that  which  had  no  claim  to  divine  authority. 

Among  the  numerous  declarations  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament which  assert  the  divine  authority  of  the  Old, 
the  following  are  particularly  worthy  of  notice: 

'But  continue  thou  in  the  things  which  thou  hast 
learned,  and  hast  been  assured  of,  knowing  of  whom 
thou  hast  learned  them.  And  that  from  a  child  thou 
hast  known  the  holy  scriptures,  which  are  able  to 
make  thee  wise  unto  salvation,  through  faith  which 
is  in  Christ  Jesus.  All  scripture  is  given  by  inspira- 
tion of  God,  and  is  profitable  for  doctrine,  for  reproof, 
for  correction,  for  instruction  in  righteousness;  that 
the  man  of  God  may  be  perfect,  thoroughly  furnished 
unto  all  good  w^orks'  (2  Tim.  iii.  14-17). 

The  whole  of  this  refers  to  the  Old  Testament,  for 
these  are  the  only  scriptures  that  were  in  existence 
when  Timothy  w^as  a  child.  The  apostle  asserts  that 
the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  is  divinely  inspired, 
and  of  the  highest  use  and  authority  to  the  christian 
teacher,  adapted  to  make  him  wise  unto  salvation,  and 
fitted  to  make  him  perfect  as  a  teacher  of  religion, 
thoroughly  furnished  unto  all  good  works. 

The  other  passage  is  from  Peter. 

'We  have  also  a  more   sure  word  of  prophecy; 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  245 

whereunto  ye  do  well  that  ye  take  heed,  as  unto  a 
light  that  shineth  in  a  dark  place,  until  the  day  dawn, 
and  the  day-star  arise  in  your  hearts :  knowing  this 
first,  that  no  prophecy  of  the  scripture  is  of  any  pri- 
vate interpretation.  For  the  prophecy  came  not  in 
old  time  by  the  will  of  man;  but  holy  men  of  God 
spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost'  (2 
Pet.  i.  19-21). 

The  apostle  Peter  here  asserts,  that  the  predictions 
of  the  Old  Testament  respecting  the  Messiah  had 
been  uttered,  not  by  human  sagacity,  but  by  the  di- 
rect suggestion  of  the  Spirit  of  God;  so  entirely  were 
they  of  divine  origin  that  the  prophets  themselves, 
who  were  the  instruments  to  utter  them,  were  not 
able  to  interpret  them  in  all  the  fulness  of  their 
meaning,  that  this  could  be  ascertained  fully  only  by 
the  event;  and  it  w^as  therefore  a  more  sure  word  of 
prophecy  to  the  christians  in  Peter's  time  than  it  had 
been  to  the  ancient  prophets  themselves.  (See  Bret- 
schneider's  N.  T.  Lexicon,  vol.  i.  p.  469). 

As  illustrative  and  confirmatory  of  the  positive 
evidence  for  the  divine  inspiration  and  authority  of 
the  Old  Testament,  it  will  be  interesting  to  contem- 
plate for  a  moment,  the  very  singular  moral  position 
which  these  sacred  books  of  the  Hebrew  nation  held 
in  the  midst  of  the  ancient  pagan  world. 

The  sacred  books  of  all  other  ancient  nations  we 
find  encouraging  polytheism,  those  of  the  Hebrews 
enjoining  a  simple  and  severe  theism:  all  other  sacred 
books  enjoining  the  worship  of  images,  these  strictly 
and  with  terrible  sanctions  prohibiting  it.  This  pe- 
culiarity, which  we  should  suppose  would  strongly 
21* 


246  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

recommend  them  to  every  enlightened  mind  of  the 
ancient  world,  is  noticed  without  being  approved  by- 
Tacitus,  the  most  profound  and  severely  philosophi- 
cal of  all  the  ancient  historians;  so  completely  had 
the  absurdities  of  polytheism  and  idolatory  interwov- 
en themselves  with  the  ideas  of  religion  in  the  most 
cultivated  minds  of  the  ancient  world.  The  Jews 
concur  with  the  Egyptians,  says  Tacitus,  'in  their 
notions  of  an  infernal  world;  but  far  different  is  their 
persuasion  about  celestial  things.  The  Egyptians 
offer  divine  worship  to  several  brute  animals,  to  ima- 
ges, and  the  works  of  art.  The  Jews  acknowledge 
but  one  God,  to  be  conceived  and  adored  by  the 
mind  only.  For  profane  and  unhallowed  they  hold 
all  such  as  out  of  materials  mortal  and  perishing  use 
to  fashion. their  gods  after  the  likeness  of  men;  they 
affirm  that  the  Divine  Being,  eternal  and  supreme,  is 
immutable  and  forever  incapable  of  decay.  No  ima- 
ages,  therefore,  are  seen  in  their  cities,  much  less  do 
they  admit  them  in  their  temples.  This  flattery  they 
allow  not  to  kings,  nor  this  honor  to  the  Caesars.' 
(Tacitus,  Hist.  v.  5). 

All  other  sacred  books  separate  morals  from  reli- 
gion, those  of  the  Hebrews  most  intimately  conjoin 
them;  others  make  gross  immoralities  a  part  of  their 
worship,  these  require  the  most  entire  purity  of 
thought  and  practice.  Other  ancient  religions  en- 
courage hostile  feeling  towards  all  nations  but  their 
own;  the  Hebrew  religion  enjoins  the  utmost  benevo- 
lence and  hospitality  to  the  stranger  and  foreigner. 

'Thou  shalt  neither  vex  a  stranger  nor  oppress  him; 
for  ye  vrcre  strangers  in  the  land  of  Egypt.     Also 


INSPIRATION    OF   THE    BIBLE.  247 

thou  shalt  not  oppress  a  stranger,  for  ye  know  the 
heart  of  a  stranger,  seeing  ye  were  strangers  in  the 
land  of  Egypt'  (Exod.  xxii.  21;  xxiii.  9). 

What  more  affecting  appeal  could  possibly  be  made 
to  awaken  all  their  benevolent  feeling? 

All  other  ancient  religions  encouraged  and  sustain- 
ed slavery;  the  Hebrew  alone  made  laws  which  sof- 
tened all  its  harsher  features  and  secured  its  final  ex- 
tinction. 

'He  that  stealeth  a  man  and  selleth  him,  or  if  he 
be  found  in  his  hand,  he  shall  surely  be  put  to  death. 
If  a  man  smite  the  eye  of  his  servant  or  the  eye  of 
his  maid,  that  it  perish,  he  shall  let  him  go  free  for  his 
eye's  sake;  and  if  he  smite  out  his  man-servant's 
tooth,  or  his  maid-servant's  tooth,  he  shall  let  him  go 
free  for  his  tooth's  sake'  (Exod.  xxi.  16,  26,  27). 

'If  thy  brother,  an  Hebrew  man  or  an  Hebrew 
woman,  be  sold  unto  thee,  and  serve  thee  six  years, 
then  in  the  seventh  year  thou  shalt  let  him  go  free 
from  thee.  And  when  thou  sendest  him  out  free  from 
thee,  thou  shalt  not  let  him  go  away  empty:  thou 
shalt  furnish  him  liberally  out  of  thy  flock,  and  out  of 
thy  floor,  and  out  of  thy  wine-press:  of  that  where- 
with the  Lord  thy  God  hath  blessed  thee  shalt  thou 
give  unto  him.  And  thou  shalt  remember  that  thou 
wast  a  bondman  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  the  Lord 
thy  God  redeemed  thee:  therefore  I  command  thee 
this  thing  to-day'  (Deut.  xv.  12-15). 

'  Thou  shalt  not  deliver  unto  his  master  the  servant 
that  is  escaped  from  his  master  unto  thee:  he  shall 
dwell  with  thee,  even  among  you,  in  that  place  which 
he  shall  choose  in  one  of  thy  gates,  where  it  liketh 


248  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

him  best:  thou  shalt  not  oppress  him'  (Deut  xxiii. 
15,  16). 

Only  one  of  the  above  regulations  has  exclusive 
reference  to  Hebrew  servants;  the  others  are  of  uni- 
versal application. 

The  evils  of  slavery  could  scarcely  be  known  in  a 
community  where  such  laws  were  in  force;  and  even 
the  legal  forms  of  involuntary  servitude  would  speed- 
ily become  obsolete,  as  they  actually  did  in  the  He- 
brew nation. 

Other  ancient  religions  elevated  the  few  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  multitude,  the  Hebrew  carefully  provid- 
ed for  universal  elevation ;  other  religions,  particularly 
in  Asia,  supported  the  most  absolute  despotism,  the 
Hebrew  entirely  prohibited  it,  and  enjoined  it  on  the 
people  to  govern  themselves.  We  have  a  remarkable 
illustration  of  the  free  spirit  of  the  Hebrew  people, 
in  the  history  of  Ahab,  the  most  tyrannical  of  the 
Israelitish  kings.  He  wished  to  purchase  the  patri- 
mony of  one  of  his  subjects,  but  the  subject  refused 
to  sell  it  at  any  price;  and  thepossibility  of  obtaining 
it  by  unlawful  or  forcible  measures  did  not  occur  to 
the  disappointed  king,  tyrant  as  he  was.  His  pagan 
wife,  Jezebel  of  Tyre,  undertook  the  task;  and  even 
she  was  obliged  to  accomplish  it  by  subornation  of 
perjury  rather  than  direct  force;  and  speedily  the 
whole  royal  family  were  made  bitterly  to  rue  their 
injustice  (1  Kings  xxi). 

The  religions  of  other  ancient  nations  encouraged 
war,  and  made  it  the  great  and  almost  the  only  hon- 
orable employment  of  man,  but  the  Hebrew  religion 
enacted  laws  which  made  it  almost  impossible  to  car- 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  249 

ry  on  war:  and  to  prevent  offensive  wars  the  raising 
of  horses  was  strictly  prohibited  (Deut.  xvii.  16; 
Isa.  ii.  7,  compare  1  Kings  x.  25,  26,  28,  29).  The 
laws  and  institutions  of  the  Hebrews  were  all  design- 
ed to  make  them  a  peaceful  and  agricultural  people; 
and  this  is  the  more  remarkable  as  they  could  gain 
possession  of  the  promised  land  only  by  a  bloody  and 
obstinate  conflict.  From  cowardly  slaves  they  were 
to  be  made  invincible  soldiers;  and  then  from  invin- 
cible soldiers  they  were  immediately  to  become  quiet 
and  laborious  husbandmen:  a  twofold  transition 
scarcely  to  be  expected  without  divine  interposition. 

The  follow^ing  extracts  from  the  military  laws  of 
the  Hebrews  will  show  the  impossibility  of  their  en- 
gaging extensively  in  foreign  wars,  while  the  Mosaic 
code  remained  in  force. 

'When  thou  goest  out  to  battle  aga'nst  thine  ene^ 
mies,  and  seest  horses,  and  chariots,  and  a  people> 
more  than  thou,  be  not  afraid  of  them :  for  the  Lord 
thy  God  is  with  thee,  which  brought  thee  up  out  of 
the  land  of  Egypt.  And  it  shall  be,  when  ye  are 
come  nigh  unto  battle,  that  the  priest  shall  approach^ 
and  speak  unto  the  people,  and  shall  say  unto  them^, 
Hear,  O  Israel;  ye  approach  this  day  unto  battle 
against  your  enemies:  let  not  your  hearts- faint;  fear 
not,  and  do  not  tremble,  neither  be  ye  terrified  be- 
cause of  them;  for  the  Lord  your  God  is  he  that 
goeth  with  you,  to  fight  for  you  against  your  enemies, 
to  save  you.  And  the  officers  shall  speak  unto  the 
people,  saying,  What  man  is  there  that  hath  built  a 
new  house,  and  hath  not  dedicated  it?  let  him  go  and 


250  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE, 

return  to  his  house,  lest  he  die  in  battle,  and  another 
man  dedicate  it.' 

'And  what  man  is  he  that  hath  planted  a  vineyard, 
and  hath  not  yet  eaten  of  it?  let  him  also  go  and  re- 
turn unto  his  house,  lest  he  die  in  the  battle,  and 
another  man  eat  of  it.' 

'And  what  man  is  there  that  hath  betrothed  a  wife, 
and  hath  not  taken  her?  let  him  go  and  return  unto 
his  house,  lest  he  die  in  battle,  and  another  man  take 
her.' 

'And  the  officers  shall  speak  further  unto  the  peo- 
ple, and  they  shall  say,  What  man  is  there  that  is 
fearful  and  faint-hearted?  let  him  go  and  return  unto 
his  house,  lest  his  brethren's  heart  faint  as  well  as  his 
heart.  And  it  shall  be,  when  the  officers  have  made 
an  end  of  speaking  unto  the  people,  that  they  shall 
make  captains  of  the  armies  to  lead  the  people.' 

'  When  thou  comest  nigh  unto  a  city  to  fight  against 
it.     Then  proclaim  peace  unto  it.' 

'And  it  shall  be,  if  it  make  thee  answer  of  peace, 
and  open  unto  thee,  then  it  shall  be,  that  all  the  peo- 
ple that  is  found  therein  shall  be  tributaries  unto 
thee,  and  they  shall  serve  thee'  (Deut.  xx.  l-ll). 

The  sacred  books  of  other  nations  we  find  full  of 
complexity  and  artifice,  those  of  the  Hebrews  all  sim- 
plicity; others  palling  upon  the  taste  after  a  few^  peru- 
sals, these  growing  in  beauty  and  interest  with  every 
fresh  examination,  affording  the  highest  gratification 
and  the  richest  nutriment  to  the  most  cultivated  in- 
tellect, and  the  sweetest  enjoyment  and  improving 
excitement  to  those  who  have  had  fewest  advantages 
for  intellectual  culture, 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  251 

These  books,  so  singularly  distinguished  above  all 
others  in  the  ancient  world  for  every  thing  that  is 
wise  in  precept,  or  benevolent  and  ennobling  in  sen- 
timent, had  their  origin  among  a  despised  people, 
who  had  been  for  ages  degraded  by  the  most  abject 
and  cruel  bondage,  and  had  been  under  circumstances 
the  most  unfavorable  to  intellectual  and  moral  de- 
velopment. Well  did  the  oriental  soothsayer  exclaim 
concerning  them:  'According  to  this  time  it  shall  be 
said  of  Jacob  and  of  Israel,  What  hath  God  wrought!' 
(Num.  xxiii.  23). 

III.     INFLUENCE    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

The  uniformly  good  influence  of  the  bible,  when  it 
is  read  and  its  precepts  regarded,  its  power  of  deep 
and  thorough  reformation  on  the  human  character, 
its  capacity  to  confer  benefits  on  the  human  race 
incomparably  greater  than  any  which  have  ever  been 
produced  by  any  other  means,  deserve  to  be  consid- 
ered while  we  are  on  the  subject  of  the  divine 
origin  of  the  scriptures.  It  is  agreeable  to  reason  to 
conclude  that  truth  alone  can  be  universally  and 
greatly  beneficial;  while  falsehood  and  imposture,  if 
they  confer  any  good  at  all,  can  do  so  only  occasion- 
ally and  to  a  limited  extent. 

Consider,  then,  in  the  first  place,  what  the  human 
race  have  always  been  without  the  bible.  Civiliza- 
tion, refinement,  learning,  without  the  bible,  have 
never  made  men  virtuous,  benevolent  or  happy.  In 
the  proudest  times  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and  among 
the  men  most  lauded  for  their  exalted  virtues,  impu- 
rities, cruelties  and  impieties,  most   destructive  to 


252  INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE. 

public  happiness,  not  only  existed,  but  were  sanction- 
ed by  public  sentiment,  and  were  regarded  as  among 
the  proper  enjoyments  of  civilized  life.  As  instances, 
we  might  refer  to  the  unnatural  lusts  which  prevail- 
ed, the  licentiousness  of  their  religious  worship,  the 
impurities  of  their  domestic  relations,  the  barba- 
rous treatment  of  conquered  nations,  the  cruelties  of 
their  criminal  jurisprudence  and  public  spectacles, 
particularly  the  gladiatorial  shows,  in  which  men 
were  made  to  murder  each  other  by  thousands  for 
the  amusement  of  the  beauty  and  fashion  of  Rome. 
Such  is  man  in  his  best  condition  without  the  bible, 
just  as  the  apostle  Paul  has  described  him.  (Rom.  i. 
20-32). 

Consider,  in  the  second  place,  the  marvellous  in- 
fluence which  the  bible  has  had — though  very  exten- 
sively neglected  and  disbelieved  where  it  is  known, 
and  among  the  best  but  very  imperfectly  obeyed — 
in  correcting  public  sentiment,  curbing  licentiousness, 
restraining  cruelty,  calling  forth  benevolence,  and 
making  it  the  business  of  men  to  seek  to  benefit  in- 
stead of  injuring  each  other.  Universally,  in  exact 
proportion  as  the  influence  of  the  bible  predominates 
over  the  influence  of  the  natural  propensities  of  men, 
does  virtue  take  the  place  of  vice,  benevolence  that 
of  cruelty,  and  public  happiness  succeed  to  public 
wretchedness. 

Consider,  in  the  third  place,  what  a  change  would 
be  effected  at  once  in  the  condition  of  the  world,  if 
all  the  human  race  were  to  read,  believe,  and  obey 
the  bible!  All  that  is  wrong  would  cease,  all  that  is 
right  would  be  practised,  perfect  virtue  and  heartfelt 
happiness  would  be  universal.    What  a  change!  And 


INSPIRATION    OF    THE    BIBLE.  253 

will  any  rational  man  think,  that  such  a  change  can 
be  produced  by  falsehood  and  imposture?  For  let  it 
be  remembered,  that  there  is  no  other  alternative:  the 
bible  either  is  of  divine  authority,  or  it  is  a  book  of 
falsehoods  and  imposition.  Can  any  man,  possessing 
one  spark  of  right  moral  feeling,  look  at  the  bible  it- 
self and  at  the  influence  it  always  produces  when 
believed  and  obeyed,  and  hesitate  which  side  of  the 
above  alternative  to  take  ? 

This  sort  of  appeal  is  frequently  made  by  Christ 
and  his  apostles.  Compare  John  vii.  15-24;  viii.  47; 
Lukexii.  57;  Matt.  vii.  28,  29;  Luke  xxiv.  32;  Acts 
ii.  14-17;  2  Cor.  iii.  1-4;  1  Thess.  ii.  13. 


22 


CHAPTER    THIRTEENTH 


MIRACLES. 


I.    SCRIPTURAL    NAMES    OF    MIRACLES. 

Miracles  both  in  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New 
receive  different  appellations,  according  to  the  diffe- 
rent points  of  view  in  which  they  are  considered,  or 
the  different  influences  they  are  adapted  to  produce. 
They  are  sometimes  called  simply  works  (erga),  which 
is  the  most  general  name,  and  most  frequently  applied 
to  the  miracles  of  Christ  (Matt.  xi.  2;  John  v.  36). 
Considered  in  reference  to  the  exertion  of  power  ne- 
cessary for  performing  them  they  are  called  powers 
{dunameis),  or,  as  in  the  English  translation  mighty 
works  (Mark  vi.  2);  considered  in  reference  to  their 
adaptation  to  excite  astonishment  in  those  who  be- 
hold them.,  they  are  called  wonders  {terata^  tkaumasia) 
or  wonderful  works  (Matt.  xxi.  15);  and  finally,  when 
regarded  as  proofs  of  divine  authority,  they  are  called 
signs  ox  proofs  {semeia^  tekmeria)^  as  in  Mark  xvi.  20; 
John  xii.  37;  Acts  ii.  22;  2  Cor.  xii.  12.  These  dif- 
ferent appellations  are  brought  together  and  all  ap- 
plied to  the  miracles  of  Christ  in  Acts  ii.  22  and 
Heb.  ii.  4,  compare  also  Acts  xiv.  3. 


MIRACLES.  255 

The  same  distinctive  names  of  miracles  will  be 
found  in  the  Old  Testament,  by  comparing  the  fol- 
lowing passages  in  the  Hebrew  original  or  the  Greek 
translation:  Exod.  viii.  19;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  11,  12;  Exod. 
iv.  9,  17;  Dent.  vi.  22;  Ps.  Ixxviii.  43.  The  same 
distinction  is  to  some  extent  observed,  though  not 
uniformly,  in  the  English  bible. 

II.     IDEA.    OF    A    MIRACLE. 

A  miracle  is  an  effect  produced,  independently  of 
the  usual  natural  causes,  by  the  direct  exertion  of 
supernatural  power. 

The  whole  history  of  the  creation,  as  given  in  the 
first  two  chapters  of  Genesis,  represents  God  as  pro- 
ducing by  creative  power  certain  natural  causes, 
adapted  to  produce  certain  effects,  which  they  uni- 
formly do  produce,  under  his  direction  and  according 
to  his  will.  The  connection  between  these  created 
natural  causes  and  their  appropriate  effects  is  what  is 
meant  by  the  phrase  laws  of  nature.  A  miracle  is 
properly  neither  a  counteraction  nor  suspension  of 
these  laws,  but  is  simply  the  production  of  an  effect 
which  is  either  beyond  the  reach  of  any  created 
cause,  or  if  within  its  reach,  independently  of  its  inter- 
vention. For  example,  raising  the  dead  to  life  would 
be  a  miracle  of  the  first  kind;  healing  a  disease,  that  is 
curable,  without  the  application  of  any  natural  ren> 
edy,  that  is,  without  the  intervention  of  any  natural 
cause  that  is  in  itself  adapted  to  produce  the  effect, 
would  be  a  miracle  of  the  second  kind. 

The  idea  that  a  miracle  is  a  counteraction  or  sus- 
pension of  the  laws  of  nature,  in  the  strict  and  pro- 


256  ^  MIRACLES. 

per  sense  of  these  terms,  has  greatly  embarrassed  the 
whole  subject  and  laid  it  open  to  numerous  philoso- 
phical objections.  Some  of  the  old  divines  contend- 
ed, that  as  a  miracle  was  properly  a  counteraction 
or  suspension  of  the  laws  of  nature,  there  must  fol- 
low every  miracle  another  direct  exertion  of  divine 
power,  in  order  to  restore  nature  again  to  her  usual 
course.  This  they  denominated  the  miracle  of  resti- 
tution {miraculum  restitutionis). 

On  the  same  ground,  it  has  been  contended  that 
miracles  are  unnatural  and  therefore  incredible,  con- 
trary to  experience  and  therefore  incapable  of  being 
proved  by  testimony.  These  objections  and  some 
others  will  be  considered  as  we  procefed. 

III.     MIRACLES    IN     UNENLIGHTENED    PERIODS. 

Independently,  however,  of  the  erroneous  idea  of 
miracles  which  has  so  extensively  prevailed,  one  con- 
sideration, with  minds  of  a  certain  class,  has  had 
great  influence  in  counteracting  their  authority  as 
evidence  in  revealed  religion.  It  is  this:  in  unenlight- 
ened and  credulous  ages,  miracles  always  abound,  but 
in  proportion  as  men  become  enlightened  they  grad- 
ually decrease,  and  finally  cease  entirely.  In  reply  to 
this  objection  to  the  authority  of  miracles,  I  submit 
the  following  remarks : 

Whether  the  statement  in  the  objection  be  true  or 
false,  it  cannot  apply  to  the  christian  miracles;  for 
the  age  in  which  they  were  wrought  was  neither 
unenlightened  nor  credulous,  but  on  the  contrary,  it 
was  a  period  of  great  intellectual  refinement  and 
almost  universal  skepticism.    Even  among  the  Jews, 


MIRACLES.  257 

there  was  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees,  including  most 
of  the  wealth  and  political  power  of  the  nation;  and 
the  Sadducees  affirmed  that  'there  is  no  resurrection, 
neither  angel  nor  spirit'  (Acts  xxiii.  8).  The  philo- 
sophy of  Greece  and  Rome  at  this  period  was  almost 
universally  an  atheistical  rather  than  a  credulous  phi- 
losophy. The  age  of  credulity  and  degradation  of 
intellect  followed  this,  when  obstinate  resistance  to 
the  light  of  heaven  plunged  men  into  the  darkness  of 
the  abyss.  This  is  the  decree  of  heaven  from  which 
there  is  no  escape:  a  determined  rejection  of  the 
consolations  of  true  religion  when  oftered,  always  in- 
volves men,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  in  the  terrors 
of  superstition. 

Again,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  miracles  cannot 
be  constant.  They  can  occur  but  seldom  and  only 
at  stated  periods.  Otherw^ise  they  would  cease  to 
appear  miraculous  and  be  regarded  as  in  the  usual 
course  of  nature.  All  our  knowledge  of  the  powers 
of  nature  is  derived  from  observation  and  experience; 
and  that  which  is  uniformly  observed  or  experienced 
is  regarded  as  natural  for  no  other  reason  than  the 
uniformity  of  its  occurrence.  What  makes  the  rising 
of  the  sun  in  the  morning  after  its  disappearance  for 
the  night,  or  the  resuscitation  of  plants  in  the  spring 
after  their  death  during  the  winter,  appear  natural; 
while  the  healing  of  the  sick  by  a  touch,  or  the  raising 
of  the  dead  by  a  word,  appears  miraculous?  Simply 
and  only  because  the  one  is  matter  of  uniform  obser- 
vation and  the  other  not.  Let  the  healing  of  the 
sick  and  the  raising  of  the  dead  become  the  uniform 
events,  and  the  rising  of  the  sun  and  the  resuscita- 
22* 


258  MIRACLES. 

tions  of  spring  the  rare  ones;  and  the  miraculous  and 
the  natural  would  appear  to  change  places.  It  is 
not  sufficient  to  say,  that  there  are  ascertained  natu- 
ral causes  for  the  one  class  of  events  and  not  for  the 
other;  for  we  always  infer  a  natural  cause  where  we 
observe  a  uniform  effect,  and  the  uniformity  of  the 
effect  is  the  only  means  by  which  we  ever  ascertain 
the  naturalness  of  the  cause.  What  is  gravitation, 
for  example,  but  a  name  given  to  an  unknown  cause, 
inferred  to  be  natural  from  the  uniformity  of  its 
effects? 

There  is  one  very  sufficient  reason  why  miracles 
should  always  be  supposed  abundant  in  unenlighten- 
ed ages,  and  become  less  frequent  as  human  knowl- 
edge becomes  more  extensive.  It  is  this:  an  igno- 
rance of  natura:l  causes  often  makes  certain  events 
appear  to  be  miraculous  which  are  not  so. 

1.  That  may  appear  to  be  miraculous  to  a  man 
which  takes  place  under  circumstances  that  are  un- 
known to  him. 

The  Syrian  w^arrior,  diseased  by  leprosy,  at  the 
command  of  the  prophet,  bathed  himself  in  the  Jor- 
dan and  w^as  cured.  (2  Kings  v).  This  was  a  real 
miracle,  because  the  w^aters  of  the  Jordan  had  no 
natural  efficacy  to  cure  leprosy,  and  the  effect  was 
produced  by  the  direct  intervention  of  supernatural 
power.  But  had  he  been  cured  by  bathing  in  a  medi- 
cinal spring,  the  waters  of  which  contained  the  natu* 
ral  remedies  for  this  disease,  if  he  were  entirely  igno- 
rant of  the  medicinal  properties  of  the  water,  and  if 
the  fact  that  any  waters  possessed  medicinal  proper- 


MIRACLES.  259 

ties,  were  entirely  unknown  to  him,  the  cure  would 
have  appeared  no  less  miraculous. 

In  such  cases,  the  difference  between  the  natural 
and  the  miraculous  can  be  ascertained  only  by  con- 
tinuous observation.  Where  the  effect  is  the  result 
of  the  operation  of  natural  causes,  it  will  uniformly 
take  place  under  the  same  circumstances;  but  if  the 
cause  be  supernatural,  the  same  preceding  natural 
circumstances  will  not  be  uniformly  followed  by  the 
same  result.  Should  it  be  said,  that  the  difference 
can  be  shown  by  analyzing  the  medicinal  waters  of 
the  spring  and  demonstrating  that  they  contain  the 
natural  remedies  for  leprosy;  I  reply  that  our  whole 
knowledge  of  the  natural  adaptation  of  these  reme- 
dies to  effect  the  cure,  is  derived  from  our  observation 
of  the  fact  that  they  generally  have  been  the  means 
of  curing  when  properly  administered;  and  should 
the  bathing  of  a  leper  in  the  Jordan  be  uniformly 
followed  by  the  cure  of  his  leprosy,  every  scientific 
man  would  infer  with  the  utmost  confidence  the  ac- 
tual existence  of  a  natural  cause,  even  though  no 
analysis  of  its  waters  should  enable  him  to  discover 
what  it  was. 

2.  That  may  appear  miraculous  to  a  man  which 
takes  place  under  circumstances  contrary  to  what  he 
has  ever  before  witnessed. 

A  chemist  can  make  ice  in  a  hot  day  by  the  appli- 
cation of  natural  causes;  and  God  might  enable  an 
accredited  messenger  of  his  to  produce  the  same 
effect  in  a  miraculous  manner,  by  the  direct  exertion 
of  divine  power.     But  to  the  simple  savage,  entirely 


260  MIRACLES. 

ignorant  of  the  laws  of  chemistry,  both  events  might 
seem  to  be  equally  miraculous. 

In  such  cases,  how  can  the  difference  be  ascertain- 
ed? By  a  careful  observation  and  comparison  of  cir- 
cumstances. In  the  chemical  process,  certain  pre- 
paratory steps  and  antecedent  combinations  may  be 
observed  to  be  uniformly  essential  to  the  result;  but 
in  the  miracle  it  is  not  so,  the  same  effect  may  fol- 
low, whatever  may  have  been  the  antecedent  circum- 
stances. 

So  to  the  unlettered  savage  the  ascension  of  Christ 
through  the  clouds  to  heaven,  and  the  rising  of  a  man 
in  a  balloon,  might  at  first  view  appear  equally  mirac- 
ulous; but  should  he  narrowly  observe  that  the  man 
cannot  rise  without  the  balloon  and  that  the  balloon 
must  always  be  inflated  in  a  particular  way,  while  in 
the  other  case  the  ascent  was  dependent  on  no  such 
antecedent  circumstances,  he  would  easily  conclude 
that  the  former  must  be  the  result  of  the  operation  of 
natural  causes,  and  the  latter  only  of  supernatural. 

3.  That  may  appear  miraculous  to  a  man  which  he 
has  never  known  to  take  place  before. 

The  prophet  Elisha  miraculously  caused  iron  to 
swim  like  wood  upon  the  surface  of  water  (2  Kings 
vi.),  and  the  chemist  by  means  of  a  compound  blow- 
pipe can  cause  iron  naturally  to  burn  with  a  flame 
like  dry  wood;  and  to  the  ignorant  man  both  events 
might  appear  to  be  equally  miraculous,  and  it  is  only 
a  careful  observation  of  the  necessary  antecedents, 
in  regard  to  the  events  not  miraculous,  that  will  ena- 
ble him  to  distinguish  betweea  the  miraculous  and 
the  natural. 


MIRACLES.  261 

In  proportion  as  our  knowledge  of  nature  is  ex- 
tended, our  power  to  produce  such  effects  is  increas- 
ed; and  in  the  same  proportion,  do  natural  events 
which  are  merely  wonderful,  cease  to  be  regarded  as 
miraculous. 

But  the  civilized  man  can  impose  upon  the  igno- 
rance of  the  savage  and  make  him  believe  that  to  be 
miraculous,  which  is  produced  by  the  application  of 
natural  causes.  Thus  Columbus  by  foretelling  an 
eclipse,  Belzoni  by  the  exhibition  of  a  telescope,  and 
•  others  by  the  explosion  of  gunpowder,  or  the  reflec- 
tions of  a  mirror,  have  acquired  among  savages  the 
reputation  of  possessing  supernatural  powers;  be- 
cause the  natural  causes  of  the  results  witnessed 
were  entirely  unknown  to  those  who  witnessed  them. 

In  the  same  way  the  scientific  man  may  impose 
upon  the  ignorance  of  the  uneducated  class  in  civil- 
ized communties;  for  example,  by  exhibiting  the 
phenomena  of  electricity  or  showing  the  effect  of 
galvanism  upon  a  dead  body.  But  when  a  knowledge 
of  the  properties  of  electricity  or  galvanism  becomes 
common,  no  such  deception  can  be  practised;  and 
when  communities  become  thoroughly  enlightened, 
they  infer  natural  causes  for  remarkable  effects,  even 
in  cases  where  all  attempts  to  ascertain  what  they 
are,  utterly  fail.  In  illustration,  we  may  refer  to  the 
exploits  of  Mons.  Chaubert,  the  celebrated  ^re-^iw^, 
which  have  attracted  so  much  attention  in  England 
and  this  country.  No  enlightened  man  thinks  of 
regarding  them  as  miracles,  because  the  whole  pur- 
pose and  effect  of  them  is  so  entirely  unworthy  of 
supernatural  intervention;  but  the  natural  means  by 


262  MIRACLES. 

which  he  is  able  to  accomplish  his  wonders,  still  re- 
main undetected. 

In  like  manner,  beings  of  an  order  superior  to  man, 
by  taking  advantage  of  their  superior  knowledge  of 
nature,  may  impose  upon  the  ignorance  of  man;  and 
hence  the  kingdom  of  darkness  may  have  its  pretend- 
ed miracles  as  well  as  the  kingdom  of  light  its  real 
ones.  This  is  expressly  recognized  in  the  bible,  and 
men  are  earnestly  cautioned  against  the  workers  of 
such  miracles,  which  are  characterized  as  lying  won- 
ders^ or  miracles  of  falsehood,  (2  Thess.  ii.  9, 10,  com- 
pare Deut.  xiii.  1-3;  Matt.  xii.  27;  xxiv.  24;  Rev. 
xiii.  13-15). 

All  these  effects  are  produced  mediately^  that  is,  by 
ascertaining  and  directing  the  existing  powers  of  na- 
ture; and  not  by  the  direct  exertion  of  any  power 
which  is  superior  to  nature;  and,  therefore,  they  are 
not  in  any  proper  sense  miraculous. 

It  was  in  this  way  that  the  pretended  miracles  of 
the  Egyptian  martumich  or  magicians  were  perform- 
ed; for  they  worked  by  their  enchantments^  and  when 
an  effect  was  produced  which  they  could  not  imitate, 
and  which  was  evidently  beyond  the  reach  of  all  the 
powers  of  nature  known  to  them,  they  exclaimed  in 
•dismay  'this  is  the  finger  of  God'  (Exod.  viii.  18, 19). 

Such  are  the  causes  of  the  abundance  of  miracles 
in  ignorant  and  credulous  ages;  and  such  is  the  rea- 
son why  they  gradually  decrease  as  men  become 
more  extensively  acquainted  with  nature. 

But  does  this  amount  to  evidence,  or  even  to  a  pre- 
sumption against  the  fact  of  the  actual  occurrence  ol 
real  miracles?    No  more  than  pretended  prophecy  is 


MIRACLES.  263 

evidence  against  real  prophecy,  or  pretended  inspi- 
ration is  evidence  against  real  inspiration,  or  than 
any  counterfeit  is  evidence  against  the  existence  of  a 
thing  to  be  counterfeited.  The  false  presupposes 
the  true  as  the  essential  condition  of  its  own  exis- 
tence. (Compare  p.  169,  201-203). 

IV.    MIRACLES    NOT    CONTRARY    TO    NATURE. 

It  has  sometimes  been  said  that  miracles  are  con- 
trary to  nature  or  unnatural,  and  therefore  incredible. 

In  reference  to  such  an  objection  we  may  well  ask 
with  Augustine  (de  Civ.  Dei,  xxi.  8)  Quomodo  est 
contra  naturam,  quod  est  voluntate  Dei,  quum  voluntas 
tanti  utique  creatoris  conditce  rei  cujusHbet  natura  sit? 
'  How  is  that  contrary  to  nature,  which  is  in  accord- 
ance with  the  will  of  God;  since  the  nature  of  each 
created  thing  must  certainly  be  as  the  will  of  the 
great  creator? 

What  is  nature  but  God  acting  in  the  creation? 
And  what  are  the  laws  of  nature  but  the  uniformity 
of  the  divine  operations?  And  what  is  natural  but 
that  which  the  continued  action  of  God  makes  natu- 
ral? The  Creator  might  have  so  ordered  it,  that  the 
grape  should  grow  upon  a  tree  and  the  apple  upon  a 
vine;  and  had  he  so  ordered  it  from  the  beginning, 
would  not  this  have  been  natural?  He  might  have 
made  the  earth  revolve  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
that  in  which  it  now  moves,  and  then  the  sun  would 
have  seemed  to  rise  where  it  now  seems  to  set,  and 
to  set  where  it  now  seems  to  rise;  and  had  he  done 
so,  would  not  this  have  been  natural? 


264  MIRACLES. 

We  deceive  ourselves  if  we  speak  of  nature  or  the 
powers  of  nature  as  of  integral  causes  existing  inde- 
pendently of  the  will  of  God.  Indeed,  laying  reve- 
lation aside,  is  there  any  possible  mode  of  proving, 
that  any,  even  the  most  common  operations  of  na- 
ture, are  performed  mediately^  through  the  interven- 
tion of  created  causes,  and  not  immediately^  by  the 
direct  exertion  of  divine  power?  How  much  more 
do  we  know  of  the  natural  causes  which  produce 
natural  effects^  after  we  have  given  them  a  name, 
than  we  did  before?  How  much  more  do  we  know 
of  the  real  cause  of  the  sensation  of  heat,  after  we 
have  said  that  it  is  caloric^  or  of  the  real  cause  of  the 
tendency  of  all  bodies  towards  the  centre  of  the  sys- 
tem, after  we  have  said  that  it  is  the  attraction  of 
gravitation^  than  we  did  before?  Does  the  uttering 
of  these  sounds  convey  any  new  knowledge  to  the 
mind?  or  are  they  confessedly  but  the  names  which 
we,  for  convenience  sake,,  give  to  some  unknown 
cause,  whose  actual  effects  we  may  investigate,  but 
of  whose  real  essence  we  can  have  no  knowledge? 
And  what  means  have  we  of  proving,  independently 
of  the  scriptural  account  of  the  creation,  that  these 
unknown  causes  are  any  thing  more  than  the  contin- 
uous and  direct  action  of  the  author  of  nature?  Says 
the  German  philosopher,  Kant,  'No  one  can  be  so 
inflated  with  a  sense  of  his  own  discernment,  as  to 
undertake  to  decide,  whether  that  wonderful  preser- 
vation of  the  various  species  in  the  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms,  in  which  every  new  plant  or  ani- 
mal generated,  possesses  the  entire  perfection  of 
structure  of  its  original;  and  in  the  vegetable  king- 


MIRACLES.  265 

dom  all  the  delicate  beauties  of  color;  so  that  each 
species  of  plants,  at  the  return  of  every  spring,  is 
reinstated  in  all  its  unabated  excellence,  its  seeds 
being  protected  from  the  destructive  influence  of  dis- 
organizing nature,  during  the  severe  weather  of  fall 
and  winter; — no  one,  I  say,  can  determine,  whether 
this  is  produced  by  the  mere  influence  of  natural 
causes,  or  whether  it  does  not  rather  in  every  instance 
require  the  immediate  influence  of  the  Creator.' 
(Kant's  Theory  of  Religion,  Religionslehre,  p.  158). 

Speaking,  as  Kant  here  is,  of  what  we  can  ascer- 
tain by  the  light  of  nature  only,  he  is  perfectly  cor- 
rect; and  it  is  only  when  we  turn  to  the  page  of  rev- 
elation, that  we  find  proof  that  God  at  first  created 
causes  which  were  from  the  beginning  intended  to 
produce  permanent  effects,  both  in  the  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdom. 

*  And  God  said,  Let  the  earth  bring  forth  tender 
grass,  the  herb  yielding  seed  after  his  kind,  the  fruit- 
tree  yielding  fruit  after  his  kind,  whose  seed  is  in  itself 
upon  the  earth;  and  it  was  so.' 

'And  God  created  great  whales,  and  every  living 
creature  thatmoveth,  which  the  waters  brought  forth 
abundantly  after  their  kind,  and  every  winged  fowl 
after  his  kind;  and  God  saw  that  it  was  good.  And 
God  blessed  them,  saying,  Be  fruitful  and  multiphf, 
and  fill  the  waters  in  the  seas;  and  let  fowl  multiply 
in  the  earth'  (Gen.  i.  11,  21,  22). 

Revelation,  then,  which  the  infidel  rejects,  is  the 
only  source  of  proof  that  those  powers  of  nature, 
which  he  endeavors  to  put  in  the  place  oi  God,  have 
themselves  any  real  existence. 

23 


^66  MIRACLES. 

Admitting,  then,  as  we  freely  do,  that  the  common 
opeiMtions  of  nature  are  performed  mediately  and  not 
immediately^  and  that  we  speak  of  what  really  exists 
when  we  speak  of  the  powers  of  nature;  these  pow- 
ers certainly  are  neither  self-existent  nor  indepen- 
dent, but  derive  their  existence  and  efficiency  entirely 
from  the  will  of  the  Creator,  who  can  at  any  time 
change  them  if  he  chooses,  or  produce  the  same  ef- 
fects independently  of  them,  if  this  best  accord  with 
his  purposes.  It  requires  just  the  same  exertion  of 
divine  power  to  make  the  solar  system  move  in  its 
present  direction,  that  it  would  to  make  it  move  in 
a  contrary  direction,  or  to  stop  its  motions  altogether; 
and  no  more.  So  far  as  God  is  concerned,  each  of 
these  exertions  of  power  is  equally  easy,  and  if  he 
so  determine,  equally  natural.  He  who  could  create 
one  human  pair,  and  place  in  them  a  natural  cause 
for  the  reproduction  of  their  own  species,  could  also 
with  equal  ease,  and  naturally^  create  other  human 
beings  without  the  generative  process.  In  this  there 
is  nothing  unnatural,  or  contrary  to  nature,  or  incred- 
ible. No  law  of  nature  is  suspended,  or  counteract- 
ed, or  set  aside.  The  Creator  simply  re-exerts  his 
creative  power;  and  with  the  Creator  the  exertion  of 
creative  power  is  not  unnatural. 

All  real  miracles  imply  creative  energy,  and  in  the 
bible  they  are  always  referred  directly  to  creative 
power;  and  in  this  view  of  them  they  are  neither 
contrary  to  nature  nor  incredible. 

Nor  do  miracles  imply  any  imperfection  in  God's 
original  plan.  They  are  not  an  afier-thought  brought 
in  to  compensate  for  an  unforeseen  deficiency.     He 


MIRACLES. 


267 


who  saw  the  end  from  the  beginning,  contemplated 
them  as  a  part  of  his  original  plan,  and  determined  upon 
them  as  the  most  direct  and  effectual  means  of  au- 
thenticating the  revelation  which  he  had  decreed  to 
give  to  his  fallen  creatures  on  earth. 

V.    MIRACLES    NOT    CONTRARY    TO    EXPERIENCIT. 

It  has  sometimes  been  urged  that  miracles  are  con- 
trary to  experience  and  therefore  incapable  of  being 
proved  by  testimony;  in  other  words, '  it  is  contrary 
to  experience  that  a  miracle  should  be  true,  but  not 
contrary    to    experience  that   testimony  should   be 

false.' 

Properly  speaking,  that  only  is  contrary  to  our  ex- 
perience which  we  know  from  personal  experience  to 
be  false;  and  nothing  which  is  said  to  have  taken 
place  out  of  the  sphere  of  our  experience  can  be  con- 
trary to  It.     The  phrase  then,  as  used  in  the  objec- 
tion, can  mean  nothing  more  than  that  we  ourselves 
have  never  witnessed  any  thing  like  a  miracle;  and 
the  principle  on  which  the  objection  proceeds,  is,  that 
no  testimony  can   establish  the  truth  of  an  alleged 
occurrence  which  is  entirely  different  from  any  thing 
which  we  ourselves  have  ever  witnessed.    This  prin- 
ciple contradicts  the  common  sense   of  all  mankind. 
Every  man  that  lives  gives  credit,  on  competent  tes- 
timony, to  hundreds  of  facts  which  are  entirely  be- 
yond the  sphere  of  his  experience,  and  in  the  loose 
language  of  the  objection  contrary  to  it;  and  if  men 
did  not  instinctively  thus  give  credit  to  testimony, 
all  advancement  in  knowledge  would  be  forever  pre- 
cluded.    Is  a  man  never  to  believe  any  of  the  aston- 


268  MIRACLES. 

ishing  facts  recorded  in  the  books  of  science  till  he 
has  seen  them  occur?     Is  not  the  testimony  of  scien- 
tific men,  of  known  probity  and  intelligence,  suffi- 
cient to  establish  the  belief  of  the  facts,  so  contrary 
to  our  experience^  that  the  earth  is  globular  and  con- 
tinually whirling  through  space   with  inconceivable 
velocity,  that  metals  can  be  made  to  burn  with  a 
brilliant  flame  and  each  with  a  strong  color  different 
from  that  of  the  metal  itself,  and  that  the  muscles  of 
a  dead  body  can  be  made  to  contract  and  move  the 
limbs  with  the  energy  of  life?     Is  no  testimony  suffi- 
cient to  convince  the  inhabitants  of  the  tropics,  that 
water  in  colder  regions  ever  assumes  the  forms  of  snow 
and  ice?     The  common  sense  of  every  man  answers 
these  questions  in   the  affirmative;  and  enlightened 
men  and  men  of  common  sense  in  all  ages  and  coun- 
tries are  in  the  habit  of  giving  this  credit  to  testimo- 
ny; and  it  is  universally  a  m.ark  of  obstinate  and 
stupid  ignorance  to  withhold  belief  where  the  testi- 
mony is  unobjectionable. 

Now  the  same  degree  of  evidence  that  is  sufficient 
to  establish  in  our  minds  the  belief  of  such  facts  as 
are  alluded  to  above,  is  also  sufficient  to  establish  the 
belief  of  facts  that  are  really  miraculous;  for  the  ex- 
perience to  he  overcome  is  precisely  the  same  in  both 
cases. 

But  the  laws  of  nature,  it  is  said,  have  always  been 
uniform;  and  it  is  the  supposition  of  an  infringement 
of  these  laws  that  constitutes  the  incredibility  of 
miracles.  But  how  do  we  know  that  the  laws  of  na- 
ture have  always  been  uniform,  except  by  the  testi- 
mony of  past  ages?     And  if  testimony  be  sufficient 


MIRACLES.  gSD" 

to  establish  the  fact  of  a  general  uniformity,  it  may 
also  be  sufficient  to  establish  the  fact  of  occasional 
infringement.  As  matter  of  fact,  also,  the  testimony 
of  the  past  is  not  to  unbroken  uniformity,  but  it  is 
universal  in  favor  of  occasional  miraculous  interposi- 
tion. We  have  then  precisely  the  same  ground  for 
believing  in  the  actual  occurrence  of  miracles,  that 
we  have  for  believing  in  the  general  uniformity  of  the 
operation  of  the  laws  of  nature;  and  to  say  that 
m,iracles  are  contrary  to  experience  and  therefore  in- 
capable of  being  proved  by  testimony,  is  simply  to 
talk  nonsense.  (Compare  Paley's  Evidences,  Intro- 
duction). 

VI.    USE    OF    MIRACLES    IN    A    SYSTEM    OF    RELIGION. 

A  positive  religion  requires  for  its  establishment 
positive  evidence  that  it  is  from  God.  This  positive 
evidence  can  be  exhibited  to  the  senses  of  men  only 
by  such  a  control  of  nature  as  none  but  God  the  Cre- 
ator can  give.  Men  in  all  ages  have  demanded  this 
evidence,  all  false  religions  have  pretended  to  give  it, 
while  no  religion  but  that  of  the  bible  has  ever  exhib- 
ited the  unequivocal  testimony  of  real  miracles. 

Miracles,  however,  though  a  necessary  constituent 
part  of  the  evidence  of  revealed  religion,  are  by  no 
means  the  whole  of  it.  They  are  addressed  rather  to 
the  physical  nature  of  man;  while  the  truths,  the 
sentiments,  the  emotions  of  the  gospel,  address  them-^ 
selves  directly  to  his  spiritual  nature;  and  where 
there  is  no  subjective  aversion  to  religious  truth,  this 
is  evidence  by  far  the  most  inward  and  satisfactory. 
A  heart  that  to  any  extent  sympathizes  with  its  God,. 
23* 


270  MIRACLES. 

recognizes  at  once  the  truth  of  God,  even  though  un- 
accompanied with  the  testimony  of  sensible  miracles, 
•He  that  is  of  God  (says  Christ  to  the  unbelieving 
Jews)  heareth  God's  words;  ye  therefore  hear  them 
not,  because  ye  are  not  of  God'  (John  viii.  47).  'To 
this  end  w-as  I  born,  and  for  this  cause  came  I  into 
the  world,  that  I  should  bear  witness  to  the  truth. 
Every  one  that  is  of  the  truth,  heareth  my  voice' 
(John  xviii.  37).  The  apostle  Paul,  speaking  of  the 
miraculous  gift  of  tongues,  says,  they  '  are  for  a  sign, 
not  to  them  that  believe,  but  to  them  that  believe  not; 
but  prophesying  (that  is,  an  exposition  of  the  truths 
and  sentiments  of  the  gospel)  serveth  not  for  them 
that  belie veth  not,  but  for  them  which  believe'  (1 
Cor.  xiv.  22). 

According  to  the  scriptural  view,  the  internal  evi- 
dence is  clearly  of  a  much  higher  character  than  the 
external,  and  is  adapted  to  those  w^ho  are  in  a  higher 
condition  of  spiritual  advancement;  and  they  who 
make  the  truth  of  Christianity  rest  exclusively  or 
principally  on  the  evidence  of  miracles,  secularize  it 
and  deprive  it  of  half  its  heavenliness. 

Nothing  but  the  depravity  of  man  and  his  estrange- 
ment from  God  makes  miracles  necessary  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  true  religion;  and  this  depravity 
may  be  and  has  been  so  obstinate  as  successfully  to 
resist  the  evidence  of  the  most  unequivocal  and  stu- 
pendous displays  of  divine  power.  '  What  sign  sho w- 
est  thou'  (said  the  unbelieving  Jews  to  Christ  directly 
after  they  had  witnessed  one  of  his  most  benevolent 
miracles)  'What  sign  showest  thou,  that  we  may  see 
and  believe?   What  dost  thou  work?    Our  fathers  did 


MIRACLES,  27  1 

eat  manna  in  the  desert;  as  it  is  written,  He  gave 
them  bread  from  heaven  to  eat'  (John  vi.  30,  31). 
Jesus  in  his  reply  no  more  refers  them  to  miracles, 
but  to  the  spiritual  blessings  which  he  was  able  to 
confer  on  all  who  would  apply  to  him  (see  verses 
32-62).  Often  he  severely  reproved  them  for  their 
incessant  and  unreasonable  demands  for  miraculous 
testimony,  a  censure  in  which  the  apostle  Paul  fully 
concurs.  (Matt.  xii.  38,  39;  xvi.  1-4;  Mark  viii.  11, 
12;  compare  1  Cor.  i.  22). 

It  should  also  be  particularly  noticed,  that  Jesus 
and  the  apostles  very  generally  refused  to  perform 
miracles,  unless  there  was  some  degree  oi faith  on  the 
part  of  those  in  whose  behalf  they  were  to  be  per- 
formed; for  without /fif^/i  the  miracle  would  produce 
no  spiritual  benefit.  The  i^rm  faith  (pistis),  as  used 
in  this  connection,  certainly  does  not  mean  mere  be- 
lief, an  intellectual  assent  to  certain  propositions,  but 
rather  a  state  of  feeling  not  obstinately  hostile  to  re- 
ligious truth,  or  a  subjective  condition  favorable  to 
religious  impression,  an  incipient  sympathy  with  that 
which  is  spiritual,  a  leaning  towards  God,  a  throbbing 
of  heart  after  a  Savior.  Compare  the  following  pas- 
sages: Matt.  xiii.  58;  Mark  vi.  5,  6;  Luke  xxiii.  8-11; 
Matt.  viii.  10-13;  ix.  2,  22,  29;  xv.  28;  Mark  ii.  5; 
v.  34;  Luke  vii.  9;  viii.  48;  xvii.  19:  Acts  xiv.  9;  iii. 
16,  and  numerous  other  places.  See  also  Bretschnei- 
der's  N.  T.  Lexicon,  vol.  ii.  p.  285;  and  WahPs  Clavis 
Nov.  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  322;  and  compare  Luke  xviii. 
8;  Acts  XX.  21;  Rom.  i.  12;  2  Cor.  x.  15;  Col.  i.  4; 
ii.  5;  Gal.  iii.  26;  1  Thess.  i.  8;  Eph.  i.  15;  vi.  23; 
Phill.  i.  25;  ii.  17;  2  Tim.  iii.  15;  Philemon  verse  5, 
and  the  parallel  passages. 


272  MIRACLES. 

It  is  in  reference  to  this  principle  that  Pascal  ex- 
presses the  following  sentiment:  'God  has  determin- 
ed that  divine  things  shall  enter  through  the  heart 
into  the  mind,  and  not  through  the  mind  into  the 
heart.' — 'Hence  it  is  that,  in  speaking  of  human 
things,  men  say,  it  is  necessary  to  know  them  before 
we  can  love  them;  but  on  the  contrary,  in  speaking 
of  divine  things,  the  pious  say,  it  is  necessary  to  love 
them  in  order  to  know  them,  and  you  can  enter  into 
truth  only  through  charity.'  (Pascal's  Thoughts, 
Part  i.  art.  3,  in  French.  The  expressions  are  con- 
siderably abridged  from  the  original,  but  the  sense 
retained). 

It  was  in  view  of  the  same  principle  that  the  pious 
Anselm  declared,  'I  do  not  seek  to  understand  in 
order  that  I  may  believe,  but  I  believe  in  order  that 
I  may  understand:  for  he  who  has  not  believed,  will 
not  experience;  and  he  who  has  not  experienced, 
will  not  understand.' 

Miracles,  however,  such  as  those  recorded  in  the 
bible,  are  amply  sufficient  to  leave  the  most  harden- 
ed sinner  entirely  inexcusable,  and  to  evince  the  ob- 
stinacy and  depth  of  that  depravity  which  can  resist 
the  overwhelming  amount  of  evidence  both  internal 
and  external,  by  whichthe  divine  mission  of  Christ  and 
the  apostles  is  authenticated.  Our  Savior  declares 
respecting  those  that  disbelieved,  'If  I  had  not  done 
among  them  the  works  which  none  other  man  did, 
they  had  not  had  sin;  but  now  have  they  both  seen 

AND    HATED    BOTH    ME    AND    MY    FATHEr'     (John    XV.   24). 

'If  I  had  not  come  and  spoken  to  them  they  had  not 
had  sin;  but  now  they  have  no  cloak  for  their  sins' 


MIRACLES.  273 

(verse  22).  In  the  passage  first  quoted,  the  miracles 
of  Christ  are  undoubtedly  particularly  appealed  to, 
but  the  whole  conduct  of  his  benevolent  life  is  also 
included;  and  in  the  second  passage  the  same  weight 
as  evidence  is  given  to  the  teachings  as  in  the  other 
to  the  miracles, 

VII.    TRUE    MIRACLES    CAN  BE  DISTINGUISHED    FROM    FALSE. 

It  is  admitted  that  men  are  liable  to  deception  in 
reference  to  miracles, as  they  are  in  reference  to  every 
thing  else.  Even  here  God  does  not  relieve  us  from 
the  responsibility  of  careful  examination,  of  thinking 
and  judging  for  ourselves;  but  he  pursues  with  us  the 
same  disciplinary  course  which  is  seen  in  all  his  other 
arrangements,  both  of  the  moral  and  physical  world. 
(Compare  p.  24,  25).  It  is  sufficient  that  there  is  no 
necessity  for  deception,  and  that  a  proper  use  of  the 
faculties  which  God  has  given  us,  will  always  enable 
us  to  distinguish  true  from  false  miracles. 

Admitting  that  God  has  established  a  real  and  per- 
manent connection  between  physical  causes  and  their 
effects,  we  may  be  sure  that  no  efiect  can  be  produc- 
ed out  of  this  connection  except  by  the  direct  interfer- 
ence of  God.  All  such  effects  are  really  miraculous; 
and  if  in  any  case  we  are  certain  that  all  the  usual 
natural  causes  are  excluded,  we  may  be  certain  that 
a  miracle  has  been  wrought.  We  might  be  thus  cer- 
tain, were  we  to  see  leprosy  or  blindness  publicly  and 
repeatedly  cured  by  a  touch  or  a  word.  In  a  case  of 
paralysis  or  nervous  disease  of  any  kind  we  might 
not  feel  so  confident;  because  in  disorders  of  this 


274  MIRACLES. 

class,  the  mind  has  great  influence  over  the  physical 
functions. 

But  a  difficulty  here  sometimes  occurs,  which  was 
long  ago  suggested  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  'That 
may  truly  be  called  a  miracle  (says  St.  Thomas) 
which  is  aside  from  the  order  of  all  created  nature; 
and  in  this  sense  God  alone  works  miracles.  But  all 
the  powers  of  created  nature  are  not  known  to  us. 
When,  therefore,  any  thing  is  done  aside  from  the 
order  of  created  nature  known  to  us,  by  a  created 
power  unknown  to  us,  that  is  a  miracle  as  to  us, 
though  not  a  miracle  in  itself.'  (Summa  Theol.  L.  i. 
qu.  110). 

In  order,  however,  to  know  that  an  event  is  really 
miraculous,  is  it  necessary  that  we  should  know 
all  the  powers  of  created  nature,  or  all  the  possible 
combinations  of  circumstances  under  which  all  pos- 
sible events  can  take  place?  Surely  not.  We  cannot 
argue  against  what  we  do  know,  from  what  we  do  not 
know.  In  order  to  know  that  a  particular  road  is 
the  shortest  possible  to  a  certain  place,  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary that  we  should  know  every  other  road  that 
leads  to  it.  Should  we  see  a  hand,  an  eye,  or  an  ear, 
which  had  been  entirely  lost  and  obliterated,  restored 
in  its  original  perfection  to  the  maimed  body;  we 
should  know  that  such  a  restoration  implies  creative 
power,  and  that  creative  power  is  natural  to  no  one 
but  the  Creator. 

When  the  organs  of  the  body  begin  to  be  decom- 
posed and  return  to  their  original  dust,  we  know  then 
that  life  is  extinct;  and  we  know  also  that  no  power 
of  created  nature  is  adequate  to  the  recalling  of  life 


MIRACLES.  276 

which  has  once  actually  departed.  The  resuscitat-- 
ing  of  the  dead,  then,  under  such  circumstances,  is 
incontestible  proof  of  creative  power. 

Unequivocal  proof,  therefore,  that  any  one  has 
wrought  such  miracles,  and  that  he  has  wrought 
them  in  attestation  of  claims  to  divine  authority,  is 
unequivocal  proof  of  the  validity  of  the  claims;  es- 
pecially, as  is  the  case  with  all  the  miracles  of  the 
bible,  when  they  are  wrought  for  a  purpose  worthy 
of  the  divine  character,  and  when  the  whole  conduct 
and  all  the  doctrines  of  those  who  perform  them,  cor- 
respond to  the  best  ideas  which  can  be  formed  of  the 
benevolence  and  wisdom  of  God. 

The  total  disparity  between  the  miracles  of  the 
bible  and  all  pretended  miracles,  both  as  respects  the 
nature  of  the  miracles  themselves  and  the  evidence 
by  which  they  are  sustained,  is  exhibited  with  unan- 
swerable clearness  by  Dr.  Paley  (Evidences,  Prop.  ii). 

The  genuineness  of  the  historical  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  credibility  of  the  sacred  histo- 
rians, their  competency  to  judge  respecting  the  mi- 
raculous facts  which  they  narrate,  their  unimpeacha- 
ble integrity,  and  the  various  circumstances  which 
confirm  the  truth  of  their  statements  beyond  the  pos- 
sibility of  reasonable  doubt,  have  already  been  ex- 
hibited (p.  102-114),  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

It  remains  only  that  we  state  the  conclusion  at 
which  we  have  fairly  arrived  by  impartial  and  tho- 
rough investigation:  The  truth  of  the  miraculous 
narratives  of  the. bible  is  sustained  by  evidence  which 
no  man  can  reasonably  call  in  question;  these  mira- 
cles were  wrought  in  avowed  attestation  of  claims 


276  MIRACLES. 

to  divine  authority;  they  were  of  such  a  nature  that 
they  could  not  have  been  performed  w^ithout  the  di- 
rect exertion  of  divine  power;  and,  therefore,  they 
fully  substantiate  the  fact,  that  the  sacred  teach- 
ers and  the  writers  of  the  bible  were  commission- 
ed and  inspired  by  the  Supreme  God,  the  Creator 
of  the  universe,  the  Author  of  nature  and  all  her 
laws. 


END    OP    VOL.    I. 


BS511 .S89 

Introduction  to  the  criticism  and 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary-Speer  Library 


s'^wWMM    1 


1012  00047  5931 


